GEOMETRIC OPTICS

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

OPTICS is a branch in physics that deals with light as an EM wave.
It can be Geometric optics:
Light is a form of energy which consists of rays which moves in straight line
until it hits an interface or obstacle.

It can be Wave optics:

Light is a wave phenomenon (Huygens 1690)
Light is an electromagnetic wave unified with theory of electromagnetism
by Maxwell (1860s)

It can be Modern (quantum) optics:

Light is a wave and at the same time consists of particles, the photons stated by
Planck and Einstein around 1900 many new phenomena, e.g., the laser
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT
 The speed of light in free space is
 Light itself is invisible but makes things visible
 Visible light is an electromagnetic radiation which is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
 Objects which produce their own light are called luminuous
objects, e.g sun, light bulb, etc
Reminder:
Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Wavelengths of visible light: 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red)

 RAY AND BEAM OF LIGHT
Light very often travels in straight lines. We represent light using rays, which are
straight lines emanating from an object.

A ray of Light is the straight path in which light travels.

In vacuum or in uniform medium, ray is a straight line.

If the medium is not uniform (for example at a surface), ray can be curved or
bent.

Rays bend at the interface between two dissimilar media and may be
curved in a medium in which the refractive index changes.
Beam of Light is a group of rays of light emitted by a source.

TYPES OF BEAM
There are three types of beam. A beam can be parallel, convergent or
divergent.
HOW DO WE SEE OBJECTS?
we can see an object if rays emitted by the object enter our eyes
(if you can see something, it must be a source of light!)
When Light encounters Matter it is-
1. Reflected – Reflection of the light bounces the energy back into the same medium that
it came from.
2. Transmitted through – The light can travel through the new material while
undergoing varying degrees of interaction with the substances’ molecules.
3. Absorbed – The light energy can be completely absorbed into the molecules of the
substance and turned into heat.

We can categorize substances according to how light interacts with their molecules.
1. Opaque objects absorb and/or reflect all light - light cannot get through.
2. Transparent objects allows light to travel through in straight lines.
3. Translucent substances or objects scatter light in all directions as it passes through.
Our atmosphere is translucent to visible light.
 REFLECTION
Light striking a surface may be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed.

Reflection is the throwing back of light ray when it strike an obstacle.

The nature of the surface of the obstacle strike determines the type
of reflection that occurs.

TYPES OF REFLECTION

Specular Reflection: This is the reflection that occurs when light

strike a smooth or plane surface like a mirror.
Diffuse Reflection: This is the reflection that occurs when light strikes
a rough surface (non- mirror like surface)
(a) Specular Or Regular Reflection (b) Diffuse Reflection
 THE LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection θi = θr

2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal are all in the same plane
TYPES OF MIRRORS
1. PLANE MIRROR

2. SPERICAL MIRROR
 REFLECTION AT PLANE MIRROR
Image Formation by a Plane Mirror
What you see when you look into a plane (flat) mirror is an image which
appears at behind the mirror. This is called a virtual image, as the light
does not go through it.
Characteristics of Image Formed
By A Plane Mirror
1. The image is same size as the
object
2. The image is far behind the
mirror as the object is in front
3. The image is virtual i.e. cannot
be seen on a screen
4. The image is inverted
 REFLECTION AT SPHERICAL (CURVE) MIRRORS
Spherical mirrors are shaped like sections of a sphere, and may be reflective on
either the inside (concave) or outside (convex). Concave Mirrors are mirrors
that used the inside as reflecting surface while Convex mirrors used the outside
as reflecting surface.
 Basic Terms Related to Spherical Mirror
1. Principal axis : Line joining the pole and centre of curvature of the
spherical mirror.
2. Pole : The geometrical central point of the reflecting spherical surface.
(aperture), denoted by (P).
3. Aperture : The width of reflecting spherical surface.
4. Centre of curvature : The centre of the hollow glass sphere of which the
spherical mirror is a part is called as centre of curvature.
5. Radius of curvature : The distance between the pole and the centre of
curvature. i.e. PC = R or The radius of the hollow sphere of which the mirror
is a part.
6. Focus point : The point on the principal axis, where all parallel rays meet
after reflection is called as Principal Focus or Focus. It is denoted by letter
‘F’.
7. Focal length : The distance between the pole and focus point i.e. PF = f
 Spherical Aberration
Parallel rays striking a spherical mirror do not all converge at exactly the
same place if the curvature of the mirror is large; this is called spherical
aberration. Spherical aberration can be avoided by using a parabolic
reflector; these are more difficult and expensive to make, and so are used
only when necessary, such as in research telescopes.
Other Types Of Aberration Associated With Sperical Mirrors
Coma
 The principal disadvantage of a parabolic mirror is that it produces good
images over only a relatively small field of view, that is, for light that
strikes the mirror very nearly parallel to the optical axis while those formed
by light coming in at an angle to the optical axis, are distorted into tiny
“tear drops” or “commas” pointing towards the center of the photograph.
 The shape of these images accounts for the name “coma” given to this type
of aberration that distorts images formed by light that strikes the mirror off-
axis.
Astigmatism
 Astigmatism occurs when rays of light in different planes do not focus at
the same distance from the mirror. Such aberrations may be caused by
mechanical distortions of large mirrors.
Curvature of field
 This is an aberration in which the image is sharp, but different parts of it are
formed at different distances from the mirror, so that the whole image
cannot be captured by a flat detector.

Distortion
 This is an aberration in which the image may be sharp, but its shape is
distorted, e.g. if straight lines in the object plane are imaged as curved lines.
Distortion may vary within the field of view, being most noticeable near the
edges of the field of view.
 If the curvature is small, the focus is much more precise; the focal point is
where the rays converge.

 From elementary geometry, we find that the focal length is half the
radius of curvature:
 Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors
We use ray diagrams to determine where an image will be.
For mirrors, we use three key rays, all of which begin on the object:
1. A ray parallel to the axis; after reflection it passes through the focal point

2. A ray through the focal point; after reflection it is parallel to the axis
3. A ray of light which passes through centre of curvature will retrace their
path after reflection

Rules 1 to 3 are the basic rules used in forming the location of the image
formed by a concave or convex mirrors
 Image formed by Concave (converging) mirrors
The type of image produced by a concave mirror depends upon the location
of the object relative to the focal point and centre of curvature.

Real images are formed if the object is beyond the focal point.

In the ray diagrams on the next slide AB represent the Object while B1A1
represent the Image.
 Image formed by Concave (converging) mirrors
Object beyond C
Object at Infinity

Object at C Object b/w C and F

Object b/w F and P

Object at F
Characteristics of the image formed by a concave (Converging) Mirror
 Uses of concave mirrors

1. Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and

vehicles headlights to get powerful parallel beams of light.

2. They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.

3. The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of
patients.

4. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in

solar furnaces.
 Image formation by a Convex Mirror
We consider two positions of the object for studying the image formed by a
convex mirror. First is when the object is at infinity and the second position
is when the object is at a finite distance from the mirror.
Object at Infinity Object at any point of the mirror b/w infinity and the pole P

Characteristics of image Characteristics of image

1. Image formed at F 1. Image formed between P and F
2. Highly diminished point-sized image 2. Diminished image (Smaller than Object)
3. Image is virtual and erect 3. Image is virtual and erect
4. Image is formed on the other side of the mirror 4. Image is formed on the other side of the mirror
 Uses of convex mirrors
 Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in
vehicles.
 These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to
see traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving.

Advantage over Concave mirrors

 Convex mirrors are preferred over concave mirrors because they always
give an erect, though diminished, image.

Advantage over Plane mirrors

 Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards. Thus,
convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area than would be
possible with a plane mirror.
 MIRROR FORMULA AND MAGNIFICATION
 In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the
object distance (u).
 The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image
distance (v).
 Recall that the distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the
focal length (f).

The object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) of a spherical
mirror are related as

This is the mirror formular

Magnification
Magnification is defined as the ratio of the image height to the object H.
It is also defined as the ratio of the image distance(v) to the object distance
(u)
=
M is negative for real images and positive for virtual image
Relationship between Magnification and Focal Length
From multi[plying through by v we have
Substitute and make M subject we have

M=

M > 1 Image is magnified (bigger than object)

M = 1 image is same size as object
M < 1 image is diminished (smaller than object)
Example 1:
An object, 4cm in size, is placed at 25cm in front of a concave mirror of focal
length 5cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in
order to obtain a sharp image? Find the nature and the size of the image.
Solution:
Object size, h = + 4.0 cm; Object distance, u = 25cm; Focal length, f = 5cm;
Image distance, v = ? Image-size, h′ = ?
From

hence image is in front of the mirror

To get image size, use
Example 2:
A convex mirror used for rear-view on an automobile has a radius of curvature
of 6m. If a bus is located at 5m from this mirror, find the position and nature of
the image formed.

Solution
Radius of curvature, R = 6m; Object distance, u = 5m; Image distance, v = ?
Focal length, f = R/2 = 6m/ 2 = - 3m
From note: for convex mirrors, f is –ve

Hence the image is formed behind the mirror.

 REFRACTION
Refraction is the bending of light rays at an interface between two transparent optical
media.
It is the phenomenon of change in the path of a beam of light as it passes from one
transparent medium to another.
The cause of refraction is the change in the speed of light as it goes from one
transparent medium to another.
Index of refraction(n)
The two transparent optical media that form an interface are distinguished from one
another by a constant called the index of refraction, generally labelled with the
symbol n.
The index of refraction for any transparent optical medium is defined as the ratio of
the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium

where c = speed of light in free space (vacuum), v = speed of light in the medium and
n = index of refraction of the medium
 Indexes of Refraction for Various Materials

The greater the index of refraction of a medium, the lower the speed of
light in that medium and the more light is bent in going from air into the
medium. A light ray will follow the path between two points that takes
the shortest time
 Refraction from different media

Refraction at an interface between media of refractive indexes n1 and n2

Note that in the first case (dense-to-denser) the light ray is bent toward the normal. In
the second case (denser-to-dense) the light ray is bent away from the normal. It is
helpful to memorize these effects since they often help one trace light through optical
media in a generally correct manner.
Laws of Refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a given pair of media. This law is also known as
Snell’s law.
or = 1 n2
The constant, written as 1n2 is called the refractive index of the second
medium (in which the refracted ray lies) with respect to the first medium
(in which the incident ray lies).
 Refraction and Snell’s Law

If we consider a beam of light passing at an angle from air into a plane-parallel slab of
glass as illustrated in above then Snell’s law gives a relationship between the angle of
incidence, (), the refraction angle (), the refraction index of the glass slab (), and the
refraction index of the surrounding air ():
 Total Internal Reflection and Critical angle
Total Internal reflection is the phenomenon that occur when light travels
from a denser medium to a less dense medium when the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle.
The Critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of
refraction will be 90°
 𝑛2 𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 90 =
𝑛1 𝑛1

If the angle of incidence is larger than this, no transmission occurs. This is

called total internal reflection.
Conditions for total internal reflection to Occur
1. Light must be travelling from a denser to a less dense medium
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle

Relationship between Critical Angle and Refractive Index

R
Application of Total Internal Reflection
1. Mirage
2. Endoscopes used in medicine
3. Reflective road signs
4. Periscopes
5. Optical Fibres used in Telecommunication, medicine, science, decorative room lighting,
photography etc…
Optical fibre

Mirage
Sometimes, on a hot day, we see mirages. For example, a driver may see what looks like a
large pool of water on the road. In fact, the road is dry.

A mirage is an optical illusion especially the appearance of a sheet of water in a hot road or
desert caused by refraction from the sky by heated air.
It is formed because there are hot layers of air near the hot road and a cooler and denser layer
above it. Cool air has a greater refractive index than hot air.
 Refractive Index in terms of Real and Apparent Depth
Refraction explains why a swimming pools is deeper than it actually appears to
be and a fish in the river or pond appears to be close to the surface of the water
than it actually is when viewed by an observer.
Apparent Depth:
Apparent depth is the distance of the virtual image (I) from the surface of
the water

Real Depth:
Real depth is the distance of the real object (O) from the surface of the
water

The apparent depth is less than the real depth because rays of light are
refracted from the normal as they leave the water. The light rays appear to
come from a point I which is a virtual image.
Refractive index in terms of the speed of light in different media

Light travels at different speeds in different media. The relationship between

these speeds leads to another formula for the refractive index of a medium:

Refractive Index

Refractive index of glass (from air to glass) =

Refractive index in terms of the wave length, λ of light in different
materials.
 We have discussed how the direction of light rays changes when it passes
from one medium to another with different refractive index.

 It is also important to discuss what happens to the wave characteristics of

light when this happens.

 First, the frequency, f of the wave does not change when passing from one
material to another i.e. the number of wave cycles arriving per unit time
must equal to the number leaving per unit time.

 Secondly, the wavelength, λ of the wave is different in general in different

materials. This is because in any medium. λ.
 Since f is the same in any material medium as in free space and v always
less than the wave speed c in free space, therefore λ is also
correspondingly reduced.
 Therefore the wave length, λ of light in a material is less than the
wavelength, of the same light in free space.
 From all that is said,
 But remember,
 Therefore, the wavelength of light in a material is given as λ=
 Hence .
QUESTION
 The wavelength of the red light from a helium-neon laser is 633nm in air but
474nm in the aqueous humor inside your eyeball. Calculate the refractive
index of aqueous humor, the speed and the frequency of the light in this
substance.
Solution:

But hence

Finally, from λf
From here we can confirm the frequency is always constant, using
Conditions for no refraction
1. When light is incident normally on a boundary.
2. When the refractive indices of the two media are equal.

Some Commonly observed phenomenon due to Refraction

1. Your eyes.
2. Rainbows.
3. Light bending in a glass of water.
4. Glasses.
5. Camera lenses.
6. Object dislocation in water.
7. Binoculars.
8. Total Internal Reflection