Limit STATE DESIGN

Design Methods
Members are designed with a capacity that is much greater than required to support the anticipated
set of loads, So to satisfy this case, factor of safety is using to increase the characteristic loads
and/or decrease the strength of materials.
Three basic methods using factor of safety to achieve safe and workable structures have been
develop:
1- The permissible stress method in which ultimate strength of the materials are divided by a factor
of safety to provide design stresses which are usually within the elastic range.

2- The load factor method in which the working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety.

3- Limit state design method is done by applying partial factor of safety, both to the loads and to
the material strengths.
Limit States Design
The code BS 8110, states that the aim of design is the achievement of an acceptable probability
that the structure will perform satisfactory during its life. It must carry loads safely, not deform
excessively and have adequate durability and resistance to the effect of misuse and fire.
Limit State design method has been developed to take account of all conditions that can make the
structure become unfit for use. The design is based on the actual behavior of materials and
structures in use. It can be divided into two groups;
1- Ultimate limit states, in which when ultimate limit states are exceeded, the whole structure or
part of it collapse.
2- Serviceability limit states, in which when serviceability limit states are exceeded, make the
structure or part of it unfit for normal use, but do not indicate that collapse has occurred.
Characteristics and Design Strengths of Materials
 Characteristics Strength or Grade of Concrete (fcu ) is the 28 day cube strength in Newtons per
square millimeter. The minimum grades for reinforced concrete are given in Table 3.3 in the
code These are grades C30, C35, C40, C45 and C50.
 Characteristics Strength or Grade of Reinforcement ( f y) is the yield stress.
Hot rolled mild steel fy=250 N/mm2
High yield steel, hot rolled or cold worked fy=460 N/mm2 .

Characteristic.Strength.( f k )
DesignStre ngth 
Partial. factor.of .Satey.( m )
Partial Factor of Safety (m)
Characteristics and Design Loads
 The characteristic or service loads are the actual loads that the structure is designed to carry.
These are normally thought of as the maximum loads which will not be exceeded during the life
of the structure. In statistical terms the characteristic loads have a 95% probability of not being
exceeded.

 Design load = characteristic load × partial safety factor for load (f )
Design Loads
Critical Load Arrangement
 Loads arrangement for maximum support moments

 Loads arrangement for maximum sagging moments

Structural Analysis
The object of analysis of the structure is to determine the axial forces, shears and moments
throughout the structure. The code states that it is generally satisfactory to obtain maximum design
values from moment and shear envelopes constructed from linear elastic analysis and to allow for
moment redistribution if desired.
The Code allowed the following methods of analysis for structures :
1- Complete structures and complete structural frames.
2- Simplification into sub-frames
3- Alternative simplification for individual beams (and associated columns)
4- “Continuous beam” simplification
5- Asymmetrically-loaded columns
Analysis of Complete Structure or Complete Frames
Simplification into sub-frames
Alternative simplification for individual beams (and
associated columns)

Asymmetrically-loaded columns