Engineering Design

Design

What is the importance of Design for engineers?

What is Design?

Creation of new and better products AND

Improving existing ones

So that it is economical in the cost of production and operation.

 Design
How a design is born ?
Market
survey

Aesthetic
marketability
Ease of
Requirement handling

Safety
Availability of
Creation FUNDS
Economical
Model Available
(Rough idea) material Recyclability

Manufacturing
resources
Machine Material/s
Analysis Force/stress Sizes
Design used
What is the basic knowledge required for
Machine Design?
Mechanical Design

•Mathematics
Mathematics
• Mechanics of Machines
•Engineering
EngineeringMechanics
Mechanics • Mechanics of Materials
• Fluid Mechanics & Thermodynamics
•Strength
Strengthof
ofMaterials
Materials

•Workshop
WorkshopProcesses
Processes

•Engineering
EngineeringDrawing
Drawing

• Computing

• Finite Element Analysis, Computational Fluid Dynamics etc

Important considerations in Mechanical Design
1. Type of LOAD and STRESSes caused by the load

• Dead loads • Stress and strain

(Tensile, compressive, shear)
• Live loads

• Thermal stresses
Steady loads

Variable loads
• Torsional stresses

• Shock loads (suddenly) • Bending stress

• Impact loads (applied with

some velocity)
Important considerations in Mechanical Design…..
2. KINEMATICS of the machine (Motion of the parts)

Find the simplest arrangement that would give the most efficient motion
that is required.

3. Selection of MATERIALs

Knowledge of the properties of the materials and their behaviour under

working conditions is required.

Strength, hardness, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and

corrosion, electrical conductivity, machinability, etc.
General procedure in Mechanical Design
Need or aim Recognize and specify the problem

Synthesis Select the mechanism that would give the desired motion
and form the basic model with a sketch etc

Analysis of the FORCES

Material selection

Determine the stresses and thereby the sizes of

Design of elements
components s.t. failure or deformation does not occur

Modification Modify sizes to ease construction & reduce overall cost

Detailed drawing Production

 Types of Basic stresses
• Direct Stress
• Shear Stress
• Bending Stress
• Torsional Shear Stress
 Typical Example of Design
Forces acting on part
Allowable strength of as per application
material (Material (known)
Properties)

Force

Area
Unknown dimensions
needs to be calculated
 Factor of Safety
 The load which any member of a machine
carries is called working load, and stress
produced by this load is the working stress.
 Obviously, the working stress must be less
than the yield stress, tensile strength or the
ultimate stress.
 This working stress is also called the
permissible stress or the allowable stress or
the design stress.
 Factor of Safety Contd.
 Some reasons for factor of safety include the
inexactness or inaccuracies in the estimation
of stresses and the non-uniformity of some
materials.

U
ltimateoryieldstress
F
acto
rofsa
fe
ty=
D
esignorw orkingstress

Note: Ultimate stress is used for materials e.g. concrete which do not
have a well-defined yield point, or brittle materials which behave in a
linear manner up to failure. Yield stress is used for other materials e.g.
steel with well defined yield stress.
 Factor of safety
 Effect of Failure
 Type of load
 Degree of accuracy in force analysis
 Material of component
 Reliability
 Cost
 Service conditions
 ENGINEERING DESIGN
Design
- a plan or drawing produced to show the look
and function or workings of a
building, garment, or other object before it is
made
- the form, parts, or details of something
according to a plan
Design establishes and defines solutions to and
pertinent structures for problems not solved
before, or new solutions to problems which
have previously been solved in a different way.
 ENGINEERING DESIGN
• Engineering design is the method that engineers use to
identify and solve problems.

• The engineering design process is a common series of

steps that engineers use in creating functional products
and processes.
• The process is highly iterative - parts of the process often
need to be repeated many times before another can be
entered - though the part(s) that get iterated and the
number of such cycles in any given project may vary.
 Define
Improve problem
& goal

Create and test Research

prototype

Imagine
Choose a Possible
solution solutions

Click on a “slice” of the Engineering Design Process cycle to learn more about its parts
 Define problem and goal

• Identify and describe

the issue and the
ultimate objective

• Consider:
– What do you want to accomplish?
– What are the requirements?
– Are there any limitations?
– Who is the customer?
 Research
• Gather information and investigate existing
technologies related to the problem
• Talk to individuals who share this problem and could
benefit from possible solutions

Image taken from: http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/infobank/programs/html/facilities/us.archives.html

 Imagine possible solutions
• Brainstorm ideas.
• Be creative and build upon the ideas of others.
• Explore and compare many possible designs within
your group.
• Be open-minded!

Image taken from:

http://www.vinylrecords.ch/J/JO/John/John_Lennon/imagine-capitol/john-lennon-imagine.html
 Choose a solution
• What materials and tools are needed?
• Consider environmental, cultural, time, and financial
issues and constraints.
• Select the most feasible idea and assign team tasks.

Best

Image taken from: http://chelseagetsmarried.blogspot.com/2010/10/eeny-meeny-miny-moe.html

$$$

Image taken from: http://andrewmatre.com/how-colors-help-make-websites-successful/

 Create & test prototype
• Build a protoype
– Protoype - an operating version of a solution. It is often
made with different materials (cheaper and easier to work
with) than the final version. They allow you to test your
solution and supply feedback. (2)
• Push yourself and the group for creativity,
imagination, and excellence in design.

(2)
http://www.sciencebuddies.org/engineering-design-process/engineering-design-prototypes.shtml
 Improve
• Share results and continue
to seek how your team
could make the solution
better.
• Iterate your design to Image taken from:
http://www.rubymarketer.com/improve-search-engine-ranking/
make the product the best
it can be.
– Iterate - to repeat an already
completed task to
incorporate new information (3)

Ulrich K., Eppinger S. 2000. Product Design and Development. 2 nd Edition. Irwin
(3)

McGraw-Hill, Boston.
 Innovation vs. Invention
Invention Innovation
A device or process originated A new improvement to an
after study and experiment existing device or process

Invention

Innovations
Image taken from: http://www.novuslight.com/led-market-phasing-in_N239.html

Invention
Innovations
Image taken from: http://lexpower.wordpress.com/2010/07/21/chronological-order-show-me-the-timeline/1000px-bicycle_evolution-en-svg/
 Types of Design
Original Design:
•An original, innovative concept to achieve a need
• Successful original designs occur rarely, but when they
do occur they usually disrupt existing markets
e.g. Development of microprocessor

Development of Engine
 Types of Design
Adaptive design :
• The design team adapts a known solution to satisfy a
different need
• To produce a novel application
• Relatively common in design
• e.g. User interface adapted to different screen sizes
 Types of Design
Redesign :
• Engineering design is employed to improve an
existing design
• The task may be to redesign a component in a
product that is failing in service, or to redesign a
component so as to reduce its cost of manufacturing
• Does not affect working principle of original design
• e.g. Change in shape to reduce stress concentration
 Types of Design
•Selection Design : -
•The design task consists of selecting the
components with the needed performance,
quality, and cost from the catalogs of potential
vendors
e.g. Selection of motors, bearings, etc.
 Types of Design
• Industrial Design
• This form of design deals with improving the appeal of a
product to the human senses, especially its visual appeal
• Consideration of how the human user can best interface
with the product
• It is a vital aspect of many kinds of design
Design for Manufacturing
 Design for Manufacturing
 Design for Manufacturing is the process
of designing parts, components or
products for ease of manufacturing with
an end goal of making a better product
at a lower cost.
 This is done by simplifying, optimizing
and refining the product design.
 Integration of designing and
manufacturing
 Design for Manufacturing
• General Guidelines
1. Minimize total number of parts
- Reduces cost of the product and increases reliability of product
- This can be achieved by combining two or more parts during
design, using snap/ press fit to replace / reduce fasteners
Minimize total number of parts
Minimize total number of parts
 Design for Manufacturing
2.Minimize variety of parts
- Reduces the manufacturing cost and
inventory, improves quality of parts

3.Use Standard Parts

- Standard parts are less expensive than custom
made parts
 Use standard commercially available components
– Examples : STD batteries, tires, bearings, screws, bolts,…
 Design for Manufacturing
4. Design Parts to be multifunctional
- Parts should be designed to satisfy more than one functional
requirement
- e.g. Part can be designed to serve as structural member as
well as spring
 Design for Manufacturing
5. Design Parts for Multiple Use
- Parts should be designed such that they can be used in
more than one product
• e.g. same shaft and gear assembly can be used in
multiple products

6. Select Least Costly Material

- Least costly material which satisfies the functional
requirements should be selected
- 50-60% of the total product cost is associated with
materials
 Design for Manufacturing
7. Design Parts for Ease of Manufacture
- The manufacturing process should be selected such that minimum
number of economical operations are required to give the part a
final shape.
- Finishing operations such that grinding, lapping, etc should be
avoided wherever possible.
 Design for Manufacturing
8. Shape the parts to minimize operations
- Parts should be shaped such that they can be
produced with minimum number of operations

9. Design for General Purpose Tooling

- Parts should be designed to use general purpose
tooling rather than special purpose tooling.
- Special purpose tooling is beneficial in case of
mass production
 Design for Manufacturing
10.Use Modular designs
 A module is a self contained component with a standard interface with
other components in the product
 This customizes the product by using different combinations of standard
modules
 Relatively resistant to obsolescence, as new generation product can utilize
most of the old modules
 Easier service and repair
 Simplify final assembly
 Products with 4-8 modules with 4-10 parts per module are preferred
Aesthetic and Ergonomics
considerations
in
Design
 Aesthetic Design
• Aesthetics is define as a set of principles of
appreciation of beauty. And it deals with the
appearance.
 Aesthetic Design

• Shiny red, sports and high-Speed Car

Considerations in Aesthetic Design
• First appearance should be pleasing to the
customer’s eye.
 Aesthetic Design
• Aesthetics is concerned with how the things
look.
It includes-
• Shape
• Texture
• Color
• Symmetry
• Simplicity.
 Aesthetic Design
Shape
Step Suitable for stationary structures
Taper
Shear : Suitable for free standing engineering structures
Sculpture and streamline : Mobile Products
Considerations in Aesthetic Design
• Symmetry should be maintained as much as
possible.
 Symmetry and Balance
Most of the natural creations are symmetric at least about one axis
- Try to incorporate symmetry in product during design
- In case symmetry is not possible to achieve, balance in the
product improves the look e.g. Arrangement of keys on keyboard
Considerations in Aesthetic Design
• Sharp edges should be avoided or chamfered.
 Proportion
- Relationship in terms of size and color of connecting items
Considerations in Aesthetic Design
• High quality surface finish always attracts.
Considerations in Aesthetic Design
• Silent operation is very important to any
customer.
Continuity
- In shape (keyboard) and color

Variety
- Variety in product range so that customer requirements can be satisfied e.g. Fridge
volumes
- Variety with colors and shapes

*Continuity with Variety*

 Impression and Purpose
- Product should look as if it will work
- It should give impression of the satisfactory performance (purpose)
- e.g. Taper shape gives impression of strength and stability
 Color
 Major contributor for aesthetic appeal
 Colors are linked with different moods and considerations
 Selection of color should be compatible with the conventions
Color
Color
Color
 Contrast

- With color and shape

 Ergonomic Considerations
Deals with
Relationship between man and machine and the
application of anatomical, Physiological and
Psychological principles to solve the problems arising
from man and machine relationship
Ergon : Work Nomos : Natural laws

Areas under consideration

 Man Machine communication
 Work environment
 Human anatomy and posture
 Energy expenditure in hand and foot operations
Ergonomic Considerations
 Man Machine Relationship

Displays : Devices through man receives information

Controls :
Large force – Levers , hand wheels, etc
Small force – Push buttons, knobs, etc
Qualitative displays

 Only display state or condition

 Performance can be improved using flash light or
warning sound
 e.g. Traffic Signals
 Quantitative displays

Moving Pointer Moving Scale Digital

 Scale should be divided in suitable numerical progression

 Number of subdivisions between numbered digits should be
less
 Letter size
H = (Reading distance / 200)
 Vertical figures for stationary dials
 Radially oriented figures for rotating dials
 Pointer should have knife edge with mirror in background to
avoid parallax error
 Control Elements Design Considerations

 Should be easily accessible and logically positioned

 Operation should involve minimum movement
 Shape of the control equipment should be in
conformity with human anatomy
 Proper color codes
 Control Elements Design Considerations

• The communication system consist of the control equipment of

devices.

• The type and size of the control devices selected depends upon
the following number of factors, the principle ones are

1. The required speed of operation.

2. The required accuracy of the control.
3. The required operating force.
4. The direction of movement for on/off or increase/decrease.
5. The required range.
 Control Elements Design Considerations

Types of Controls

1.Hand wheel –
Torque corresponding to tangential force as 300 to 400 N if the rim of the wheel grasped
firmly by both hands.

2. Small Crank –
Can be operated at high speeds with load of the order of 10 to 20 N, maximum speed of
crank 200 rpm, handle length 40 mm and grip diameter 10 mm
 Control Elements Design Considerations

3. Round knob –
Be operated by hand.
Diameter – 10 mm to 150 mm max. suitable
Diameter – 50 mm , torque – 25 Nm

4. Joysticks –
It is a lever with two degree of freedom and used to control two independent variable
simultaneously e.g. gear box operating lever of automobile and selector switches.
 Control Elements Design Considerations

5. Push buttons –
These are used for controlling two state parameters and can be biased to return to the
un-operated condition when not presses (car horn) or may require second pressure to
release them (T.V. on/off switch).
 Layout Design
 Sequence of Operations
 Functional Grouping
 Frequency of use
 Ease of Identification
Layout Design
Examples
 Working Environment
• Light
 Standard codes about light system at work space should be strictly
followed
 Intensity, color, brightness, glare, etc should be monitored and
maintained

• Noise
 Standard industrial norms should be followed
 Noise results in annoyance, hearing loss and less work efficiency
 It can be reduced by proper maintenance, isolators and use of silencers
 Working Environment

• Temperature
 Proper temperature results in enhanced work efficiency
 Temperature at work space depends on nature of work

• Humidity and Air circulation

 Humidity affects work efficiency at high and low
temperature.
 Proper air circulation can overcome adverse effects of
humidity and temperature.
 Anthropometric Data
Anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design,
clothing design, ergonomics and architecture where
statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the
population are used to optimize products.
 Use of Anthropometric Data in Design
• Determine what principle is to be applied.

There are three principles for applying

anthropometric data to specific design
problems:
1. Design For Extreme Individuals
2. Design For Adjustable Range
3. Design For The Average
 Use of Anthropometric Data in Design
• Defining equipment and facilities.
Criteria of judgment of design features of physical
equipment and facilities:
• Comfort
• work performance
• safety, physical effects
Equipment's are of three kinds:
• Spaces into which men fit
• Tools or controls which men use
• Protective clothing and devices
Use of Anthropometric Data in Design
Examples of Anthropometric Data
Use of Anthropometric Data in Design
Use of Anthropometric Data in Design
Design of a Table Chair system for Office Work
 Use of Anthropometric Data in Design

• Determine the body dimensions.

G e o m e t r i c a l D i m e n s i o n i n g & To l e r a n c i n g
Hmmmm. . . .
What would
I prefer?
 Material Condition

Maximum Material Condition Minimum Material Condition

(Shirt with same size but in Large) (Shirt with same size but in Small)
 Type of Fits

Interference Fit (Ring Transition Fit ( Cap

on Finger) Clearance Fit ( Plug
on Pen)
into Socket)
What is Tolerance?
 Terminology for Limits and Fits Cont.
Tolerance :Tolerance is the difference between maximum limit of size and minimum
limit of size.
Tolerance
zone

Upper limit =  28 . 2

Zero line

Lower limit =  27. 8

Ø28
 0.2
(Basic)

Hole
 Different Types of limit
 Unilateral Limit: In this
method of presenting the
limits, both the limits of size
are on the same side of the
zero line.

Bilateral Limits: Here one of Zero line

the limits is on one side of the
zero line And the other limit of
size is on the other side of the
line.
 Meaning of Fit
Relationship between two mating parts
 FITS

• The degree of tightness and or looseness between the two

mating parts.

Three basic types of fits can be identified, depending on the

actual limits of the hole or shaft.
Types of Fit
1. Clearance fit

Upper limit of shaft is less than the lower limit of the hole.
2. Interference fit
Upper limit of the hole is less than the lower limit of shaft.
 3. Transition fit
Diameter of the largest permissible hole is greater than the diameter of
the smallest shaft.

• Neither loose nor tight like clearance fit and interference fit.
• Tolerance zones of the shaft and the hole will be overlapped between
the interference and clearance fits.
 Systems used to Indicate Fits

• To obtain the desired class of fits, either the size of the

hole or the size of the shaft must vary.

Two types of systems are used to represent three basic

types of fits

1. Hole basis system

2. Shaft basis system.

 1. Hole Basis systems

•In the hole basis system, the size of hole is

taken as a basic hole. i.e. the nominal size and
the limits on the hole are maintained constant
and the shaft limits are varied to obtain the
required fit.
(a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit
 2. Shaft Basis systems
• In this system the hole must fit the shaft. This
means the shaft size remains constant while the
hole size varies according to the type of fit.
(a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit
 Example

Calculate Maximum and

Minimum Clearance
Clearance = Hole – Shaft
.490
.485
Cmax = Hmax – Smin
.510
Cmax = .510 – .485 = .025 .505

Cmin = Hmin – Smax

Cmin = .505 – .490 = .015

What type of fit is this? Cmax > Cmin > 0 Clearance

 Maximum and Least Metal
Condition
• MMC is the condition of a feature which contains the
maximum amount of material, that is, the smallest hole or
largest pin, within the stated limits of size.
• LMC is the condition in which there is the least amount of
material, the largest hole or smallest pin, within the stated
limits of size.
 Example
Consider a shaft having a dimension of 40 ± 0.05 mm and Hole having a
dimension of 45 ± 0.05 mm.

For Shaft

Maximum metal limit (MML) = 40.05 mm

Least metal limit (LML) = 39.95 mm

For Hole
Maximum metal limit
(MML) = 44.95 mm
Least metal limit (LML) =
45.05 mm
 Geometric Relations

Parallelism (Seating Perpendicularity Angularity (Tap to the water

face to ground) (Stem to blade) flow)

Concentricity (center of Flatness (Vessel bottom resting on

inner and outer circle) oven)
 Surface Finish

Mosaic Floor Cemented Floor

Tolerance Stack
Last Button not
entering in the shirt
slot
Can you read this Drawing?
And…
Benefits
of

GD&T
G e o m et r i ca l t o l e r a n c e s vs
size t o l e r a n c e s
Precision &
Accuracy
 Reduced
re w o r k cost
Reduced
Defects
 Increased
understanding

Mfg Design Quality

What is Tolerance?
Terminologies used in Limits and Fits
 Terminologies used in Limits and Fits
Lower Deviation

Upper Deviation
 Deviation:- It is the algebraic
difference between actual size,
to its corresponding basic size.
Hole

 Upper Deviation:- It is the

Max.dia.

Min.dia.

Max.dia.

algebraic difference between

Min.dia.

Shaft

maximum limit of size and its

corresponding basic size.
 Lower Deviation:- It is the algebraic difference between
minimum limit of size and its corresponding basic size.
 Fundamental Deviation:- It is either upper deviation
or lower deviation which is closer to zero line or basic
size.
 Meaning of Fit
Relationship between two mating parts
 Types of Fits
 Clearance Fit
 Transition Fit
 Interference Fit
Manufacturing Drawing
 System
of
Limits and Fits
Designation of Holes and Shafts
Designation
Designation
of
Basic Size of
Hole
Shaft

60 H7 f8
Tolerance
grade for
Tolerance Shaft
grade for
Hole
ISO System of Limits and Fits
ISO System of Limits and Fits
 Grades of Tolerance

It may be noted that the value of IT6 Grade is taken as 10i and
values of the subsequent grades are obtained by multiplying
earlier grade by 5 10
 Grades of Tolerance
• IT01 = 0.3 +0.008D
• IT0 = 0.5 +0.0012D
• IT1 = 0.3 +0.02D
• The value of IT2 is selected properly by scaling
in between the values of other tolerance
grade.
Fundamental deviations
Grades of Tolerance
 Symbolic Representation of Tolerance
Few Definitions

• Zero Line: It is a line along which represents the basic size

and zero (or initial point) for measurement of upper or lower
deviations.

• Basic Size: It is the size with reference to which upper or

lower limits of size are defined.

• Shaft and Hole: These terms are used to designate all the
external and internal features of any shape and not
necessarily cylindrical.
Indian Standard System of Limits and Fits
Indian Standard System of Limits and Fits
System of Limits and Fits
The selection of letter freezes one
limit of hole / shaft
Representation of
Tolerance
(how much away from Basic size)
1) Letter Symbol
Basic Size
45 E8/e7

One can have different possible

combinations; eg. 45H6g7,
45H8r6, 45E5p7
E.S. – upper deviation
E.I. – lower deviation

H : lower deviation of hole is

zero
h : upper deviation of shaft
is zero
 Symbolic Representation of Tolerance

Example: Consider the designation 40 H7/d9

• Basic size of the shaft and hole = 40 mm.
• Nature of fit for the hole basis system is designated by H
• Fundamental deviation of the hole is zero.
• Tolerance grade: IT7.
• The shaft has a d-type fit, the fundamental deviation has a
negative value.
• IT9 tolerance grade for shaft.
• Evaluate fits for an assembly pair 6 H7/ g6 mm
Types o f

GD&T
Types o f G e o m e t r i c a l t o l e r a n c e s
F o r m To l e r a n c e s

• Straigh tness • Circularity

• Flatness • Cylindricity

O r i e n t a t i o n To l e r a n c e s
• Parallelism • Angularity
• Perpendicularity

Location to le r a n c e s
• Position • Concentricity
• Symmetry • Coaxiality

runout tolerances

• Circular ru n o u t • To t a l r u n o u t
Simple Drawing
Problem was
GD&T
Symbols
Symbols
Feature Control Frame
 Details o f

To l e r a n c e s
 Form
To le ra n ce s
 Straightness
Straightness tolerance
T h e t o l e r a n c e z o n e , in t h e c o n s i d e r e d p l a n e , is l i m i t e d b y
t w o parallel s t r a i g h t l i n e s a d i s t a n c e a p a r t a n d in t h e
specified d i r e c t i o n o n l y
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
(GD&T)-STRAIGHTNESS
 FLATNESS
flatness tolerance

The e x t r a c t e d ( a c t u a l ) s u r f a c e s h a l l be c o n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t w o
parallel p l a n e s DISTANCE T a p a r t .
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
(GD&T)- FLATNESS
 Ro u n d n e s s
roundness tolerance

The t o l e r a n c e zone, in t h e c o n s i d e r e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n , is l i m i t e d b y
two c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s w i t h a d i ff e r e n c e in r a d i i o f t
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
(GD&T)-ROUNDNESS
 CYLINDRICITY
cylindricity tolerance

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o c o a x i a l c y l i n d e r s w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e
in r a d i i o f T
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
(GD&T)
 Details o f

To l e r a n c e s
O r i e n t a ti o n
To le ra n ce s
 PARALLELISM

• Pa ra l l e l i s m t o l e r a n c e o f a line
r e l a t e d t o a d a t u m system

Dir e c t i o n
• s p e c i f i eTdh e t o l e r a n c e z o n e i s l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e
a p a r t . The pl anes a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e d a t u m s a n d in t h e
d i r e c ti o n s p e c i fi e d
Parallelism
 Prependicularity
Per p en d icu lar ity t o l e r a n c e o f a line r e l a t e d t o a d a t u m
line

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e a p a r t
and perpendicular t o t h e datum
 GD&T Perpendicularity
• The examples below give different applications of perpendicularity geometric tolerance.
– Figure 1 is the application of perpendicularity to a surface.
– Figure 2 is the application of perpendicularity to an axis.
– Figure 3 is the application of perpendicularity to a center plane.
– Figure 4 is the application of perpendicularity of line elements.

Perpendicularity to an Axis

Perpendicularity to a
Perpendicularity to a Surface
Center Plane
Perpendicularity to Line
Elements

174
Perpendicularity
 Angularity
Angularity t o l e r a n c e o f a line r e l a t e d t o a d a t u m line

a ) Line a n d d a t u m l i n e i n t h e s a m e p l a n e :
The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e t
apart and inclined a t t h e specified angle t o t h e datum.
 Angularity (example)

• Surface must lie

between two parallel
planes 0.3 apart which
are inclined at 45
degrees.
 GD&T Angularity
• Angularity geometric tolerance
– A surface, center-plane or axis at a specified angle (other than 90) form a datum plane or
axis.
– The symbol for angularity is 
– Figure 1 the application of angularity to a surface.
– Figure 2 is the application of angularity to an axis.
– Figure 3 is the application of angularity to a center plane.

Angularity Tolerance Feature Control Frame

Angularity to a Surface Angularity to a Center Plane Angularity to an Axis

 Angularity
Angularity t o l e r a n c e o f a line r e l a t e d t o a d a t u m line

b) The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e t
apart a n d inclined a t t h e specified a n g l e t o t h e d a t u m. The c o n s i d e re d
line and
t h e d a t u m l i n e a r e n o t in t h e same p l a n e
 Details o f

To l e r a n c e s
L o c a ti o n To le ra n ce s
 Po s i ti o n
Position tolerance of a point

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y a s p h e r e o f d i a m e t e r t i f t h e t o l e r a n c e
v a l u e i s p r e c e d e d b y t h e s y m b o l SØ. T h e c e n t e r o f t h e s p h e r i c a l t o l e r a n c e
z o n e is f i x e d b y t h e o r e t i c a l l y e x a c t dimensions w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
datums A, B a n d C
GD&T – Datum Surfaces and Features
 Po s i ti o n
Position t o l e r a n c e o f a line

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e t a p a r t
a n d s y m m e t r i c a l l y d i s p o s e d a b o u t t h e c e n t e r line. The c e n t e r l i n e is f i x e d
by t h e o r e t i c a l l y e x a c t d i m e n s i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o d a t u m s A a n d B. T h e
t o l e r a n c e i s s p e c i f i e d i n o n e d i r e c t i o n o n l y.
 Positio n

Position tolerance of a
line
 Po s i ti o n
Position t o l e r a n c e o f a line

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y a c y l i n d e r o f d i a m e t e r t i f t h e
tolerance v a l u e i s p r e c e d e d b y t h e s y m b o l Ø. T h e a x i s o f t h e t o l e r a n c e
c y l i n d e r is f i x e d b y t h e o r e t i c a l l y e x a c t dimensions w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
d a t u m s C, A a n d B
 Po s i ti o n
Position t o l e r a n c e o f a f l a t s u r f a c e o r a median p la n e

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e t a p a r t
and symmetrically disposed a b o u t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y e x a c t position fixed
by t h e o r e t i c a l l y e x a c t dimensions w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d a t u m s A a n d B
 C o n c e nt r i c i t y
Concentricity tolerance of a point

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y a c i r c l e o f d i a m e t e r t ; t h e t o l e r a n c e
value s h a l l be p r e c e d e d b y t h e symbol . The c e n t e r o f t h e c i r c u l a r
tolerance zone coincides w i t h t h e d a t u m p o i n t
 Concentricity

 Similar to Cylindrical Tolerance, but related to a

DATUM Cylinder
• The ENTIRE Axis of the Concentric
Feature Must Lie within the Tolerance
Zone Relative to the Datum centerline
 C o a x i a li t y
Coaxiality t o l e r a n c e o f an axis

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y a c y l i n d e r o f d i a m e t e r t ; t h e
tolerance v a l u e s h a l l be p r e c e d e d b y t h e symbol Ø . The axis o f t h e
cylindrical t o l e r a n c e zone coincides w i t h t h e d a t u m
 Symmetry
Symmetry t o l e r a n c e o f a median
plane

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e t a p a r t ,
s y m m e t r i c a l l y disposed a b o u t t h e median plane, w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d a t u m .
 Symmetry of Size Features
8.8
A 8.2
0.4 A

20.5
20.0

Center plane of datum feature • The median points of all

A, ascertained by variable opposed elements of the
gage. groove (measurements
across the opening and
perpendicular to the
center plane) must lie
between two parallel
planes 0.4 mm apart,
which planes must also be
parallel to the center
plane.

0.4 wide tolerance zone

 Details o f

To l e r a n c e s
 Runout
To le ra n ce s
 Circular r u n o u t
Circular run-out tolerance —
radial

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d w i t h i n a n y c r o s s - s e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
t h e d a t u m a x i s b y t w o c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s w i t h a d i ff e r e n c e in r a d i i o f
t, t h e c e n t e r s o f w h i c h coincides w i t h t h e d a t u m
 Circular r u n o u t
Circular run-out tolerance —
axial

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d t o a n y c y l i n d r i c a l s e c t i o n b y t w o c i r c l e s
w i t h a d i s t a n c e t a p a r t l y i n g in t h e c y l i n d r i c a l section, t h e a x i s o f
which coincides w i t h t h e d a t u m
 To t a l r u n o u t
To t a l r a d i a l r u n - o u t t o l e r a n c e

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o c o a x i a l c y l i n d e r s w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e
in r a d i i o f t , t h e a x e s o f w h i c h coincide w i t h t h e d a t u m
 RunOut
 Note that the
CAUSE of the
RunOut is NOT
Known
Circular • In CIRCULAR
Case Could
be some
Total
Combo of
Circularity &
Concentricity
• In TOTAL
Case add
Straightness
to the list
 To t a l r u n o u t
To t a l a x i a l r u n - o u t t o l e r a n c e

The t o l e r a n c e z o n e is l i m i t e d b y t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a d i s t a n c e t a p a r t a n d
perpendicular t o t h e datum
 How to read GD & T ?
- Location, Form, Profile, Run out or an
Orientation Tolerance

- Value of tolerance
- Bonus tolerance
- Size of feature – MMC to LMC

- Datum s
Thank you