Power Electronics and Drives

MTC 305
Module 3&4
Dr. M.S. Bhatia
M3: AC Converters
3.1: Inverters (DC-AC):
• Single phase half/full bridge voltage source
inverters with R load.
3.2: AC-AC converters
• AC voltage controllers: Single phase AC voltage
controller –on – off control and phase control.
• Cycloconverters: Principle of operation of single-
phase step-up and step-down cycloconverters.
3.1: Single phase inverter.
• Inverters are crucial components in power electronics
because they transform DC input voltage to AC output
voltage. Talking about single-phase inverters, these convert a
DC input source into a single-phase AC output. These
inverters are frequently utilized in a variety of settings and
applications.
• A single-phase inverter's main goal is to generate an AC
output waveform that, in ideal circumstances, mimics a
sinusoidal waveform with little harmonic content, which is
the common waveform of AC electricity supplied by the
utility grid. To reduce harmonic distortion and ensure the
appropriate operation of various loads, including delicate
electronic equipment and electric motors, it is essential to
achieve a high-quality sinusoidal waveform.
Half-wave bridge inverter.
• As depicted in Figure 1, the half-bridge inverter architecture is a basic
single-phase inverter structure. It is made up of two switching
components (usually transistors, IGBTs, or MOSFETs) linked in series
across a DC voltage source, two feedback diodes, and two capacitors
that link the source and load. The load is attached between the midpoint
of the capacitors (A node) and the midpoint of the diode and switches (B
node). A complementary operation of the switches creates an AC output
voltage across the load in this arrangement. Feedback diodes are
utilized with inductive loads. Although the half-bridge inverter is
reasonably straightforward and inexpensive, it needs a center-tapped
DC voltage source or a split capacitor to supply the necessary voltage.
• The load in a half-bridge inverter may be resistive (R) or resistive and
inductive (RL). While the current waveform for an RL load is phase-
shifted to the voltage waveform, it is identical to the output waveform
for a R load. The power factor of the load, which is impacted by the
inductive nature of the load, determines this phase shift.
Half-wave bridge circuit.
Mode 1 of Operation.
Mode 1 of operation.
• Figure in last slide depicts Mode 1 for a resistive
load in a half H-bridge inverter. The output
voltage in this mode is equal to half the DC
source voltage, current flows through the load
and the top switch (S1), and the lower switch
(S2) is turned off. The output voltage across the
load can be measured as
VO =
The output current is measured as
IO =
Mode 2 of Operation.
Mode 2 of operation.
• Figure in last slide depicts mode 2 for resistive loads
in a half-H-bridge inverter. The output voltage in this
mode is equal to the negative half of the DC source
voltage, current flows through the load and the lower
switch (S2), and the upper switch (S1) is off.
• The output voltage across the load is
VO =
• The output Current is

IO =
Waveforms in Half-wave Bridge Inverter.
Full wave bridge inverter.
• Figure in next slide illustrates the "H-bridge" arrangement of four
switching devices (transistors, IGBTs, MOSFETs, or thyristors)
and four feedback diodes used in a full-bridge inverter topology.
In comparison to the half-bridge architecture, this topology
provides a larger output voltage capability. Full-bridge inverters
offer improved performance and are often used in many single-
phase inverter applications, including motor drives, solar
inverters, and UPS systems, despite having a larger component
count and complexity.
• The load in a full-bridge inverter may be resistive (R) or resistive
and inductive (RL). An R load's current waveform and output
voltage waveform are the same. However, due to the inductive
nature of load, the current waveform for an RL load is phase-
shifted to the voltage waveform. The power factor of the load
affects the phase shift's magnitude.
Full wave bridge inverter.
Gate signals and output voltage.
Operation of full wave inverter.
• In Figure shown in last slide, the output voltage
as well as the inverter gating signals are
displayed.
• It may be readily shown that the fundamental
component of the output has an RMS value of
0.9Vdc, which is double that of a half-bridge
inverter.
• For a full-bridge inverter with R load, there are
two primary modes of operation.
Mode 1 of Operation.
Mode 1 of operation.
• Figure in last slide depicts Mode 1 for R load in a full
bridge inverter. The output voltage is equal to the DC
source voltage when the upper-left switch (T1) and
lower-right switch (T2) are turned ON, and the upper-
right switch (T3) and lower-left switch (T4) are turned
OFF. Current flows through the load, the upper-left
switch (T1), and the lower-right switch (T2).
• Across the load, the output voltage is
VO = VDC
• The output current is
IO = VO/RL
Mode 2 of operation.
Mode 2 of operation.
• Figure in last slide depicts Mode 2 for R load in a full
bridge inverter. The output voltage is equal to the negative
DC source voltage when the upper-right switch (T3) and
the lower-left switch (T4) are turned ON and the upper-
left switch (T1) and lower-right switch (T2) are turned
OFF. In this case, the current flows through the load, the
upper-right switch (T3), and the lower-left switch (T4).
• Across the load, the output voltage is
VO = -VDC
• The output current is
IO = VO/RL
3.2: AC – AC converters.
• AC voltage controllers: Single phase AC voltage controller –on –
off control and phase control.
Power electronic devices such as single-phase AC/AC converters are
used to regulate the RMS and/or phase of the voltage or current in
single-phase alternating current (AC) systems. These converters may
alter the AC waveform's RMS voltage, frequency, or phase angle,
offering accurate control and better performance in a variety of
applications. They are frequently employed in single-phase AC
power systems, which are the most common type of electrical supply
in residential, commercial, and light industrial settings.
• The classification of single-phase AC/AC converters is done in two
categories based on their operating principles:
• Single-phase AC choppers
• Phase-controlled AC voltage controllers.
AC-AC
Converter.
AC – AC Converters.
• Each category has its unique characteristics, control
strategies, and applications, as discussed in the following
sections.
• The fundamental ideas, guiding principles, and control
strategies pertaining to single-phase AC/AC converters will
all be covered in this chapter. It will also discuss how
different loads affect these converters' performance and
give an overview of how they are used in various power
electronics systems. Engineers and students may efficiently
build and optimize power electronics systems for a variety
of applications, from motor speed control to lighting
systems and beyond, by knowing the basic principles and
methods of single-phase AC/AC converters.
Single-Phase AC Choppers.
• Power electronic switches are used in single-
phase AC choppers, a type of AC/AC converter,
to alter the output voltage waveform without
changing the input frequency. In order to
properly control the output voltage, these
converters use fast-switching devices like Metal-
Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
(MOSFETs) or Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors (IGBTs) to divide the input
waveform into smaller segments.
ON-OFF Control.
• The AC supply is turned ON for a few cycles and
then turned OFF for some cycles.
• Such a control is acceptable for systems that
have large inertia – large heating systems,
furnaces etc.
• The temperature in these furnaces is controlled
smoothly due to large inertia of the system.
• The overall supplied power is lower than full
capacity.
• For low inertia systems Phase-control is used.
Phase control technique.
• Phase-Controlled Converters: These converters
control the RMS output voltage by adjusting the
input AC waveform's phase angle or firing angle
by using thyristors or TRIACs as their primary
switching devices.
• These are commonly used for resistive and
inductive loads, such as lighting and heating
systems, motor speed control, and power
supplies.
Cycloconverters…
• A cycloconverter (also known as a cyclo-inverter or CCV)
converts a constant voltage, constant frequency AC waveform to
another AC waveform of a different frequency. A cycloconverter
achieves this through synthesizing the output waveform from
segments of the AC supply (without an intermediate DC link).
• The main forms of electrical energy commonly available are
constant DC (Direct Current) and constant AC (Alternating
Current). Often though, we need to swap between AC and DC,
change the frequency, or swap from constant to variable power.
For these conversion purposes, several converters like inverters,
rectifiers, DC choppers and cycloconverters are employed. The
cycloconverters can in fact transfer AC power of a fixed
frequency to the AC power of a different frequency (see figure
in next slide).
Cycloconverter – block diagram.
Cycloconverter…
• The cycloconverter converts AC to AC whilst
changing only the frequency. Hence it is also
known as a frequency changer.
• Normally, the output frequency is less than the
input frequency.
• There are no DC stages in between this conversion
process. The implementation of the control circuit
is complicated due to a large number of SCRs (
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers). Microcontroller or
DSP or microprocessor is used in control circuits.
Types of Cycloconverters…
• Mainly there are two types according to the output
frequency which are showing below
Step Up Cycloconverters
• It can provide an output having the frequency
greater than the input frequency by using line
commutation.
Step Down Cycloconverters
• It provides output having lower frequency than the
input frequency by using forced commutation.
These types of converters are further classified
depending on AC phase supply.
Single phase AC-AC cyclo-
converter.
• Refer figure in next slide. The operation is as
follows. Imagine we have to get one fourth of input
voltage as the output. Then during the first two
cycles of input voltage, the positive converter will
operate and provide the current to the load and the
input voltage gets rectified. During the next two
cycle the other converter (-ve converter) will
operates and provide the current to the load in the
opposite direction (figure 3). When one converter is
in operation, the other will be in the disabled
condition. Therefore, there is no circulating
current between these converters.
Input-Output waveforms…
Applications of Cycloconverters.
• Cement mill drives
• Rolling mills
• Ship propulsion drivers
• Water pumps
• Washing machines
• Mine winders
• Industries
END of Module 3.
Assignment 3.
• Short questions:
• Q1) What is an inverter? Where is it used?
• Q2) Explain the difference between half wave inverter.
• Q3) Explain the working of ON-OFF control in AC
chopper. Where is it used?
• Q4) Explain the working of Phase control AC – AC
converter.
• Q5) What is a cycloconverter? Where is it used?
Assignment 3.
Long questions:
• Q1) Explain in detail the working of a full-wave bridge
inverter with R load.
• Q2) With circuit diagram explain the working of a
Single-Phase ON-OFF control. Mention where they are
used.
• Q3) With circuit diagram explain the working of a single-
phase AC Phase control. Show the waveforms of output.
• Q4) Explain the working of a Cycloconverter. What are
the applications of a Cycloconverter?
Module 4:Electrical Drives
• 4.1: Introduction: Definition and difference
between mechanical and Electrical Drive, Block
diagram, Classification, Choice of Electrical
drive.
• 4.2: Dynamic characteristics of electrical motor.
• Fundamental torque equation, Multi-quadrant
operation.
4.1: What is a drive system?
• A drive system is used for converting hydraulic,
pneumatic, electrical or mechanical energy into
useful mechanical powered motion.
• Depending on the power level needed and
situation, any one of above drive system can be
chosen.
• There are many designs in each type of drives
and the field is vast.
• We discuss a few simple examples of mechanical
and electrical types.
Simple Mechanical Drives: Belt,
Chain and Gear…
• Belt Drive.
Simple Mechanical Drives: Belt,
Rope, Chain and Gear…
• Rope Drive.
Simple Mechanical Drives: Belt,
Rope, Chain and Gear…
• Chain Drive.
Simple
Mechanical
Drives: Belt,
Rope, Chain
and Gear…
Sr.
Particulars Belt drive Chain drive Gear drive
No.

1. Main element Pulleys, belt Sprockets, chain Gears

2. Slip Slip may occurs No slip No slip

(Positive drive) (Positive drive)

3. Suitability For large center distance For moderate center distance For short center distance

4. Space requires Large Moderate Less

5. Design, Simplest Simplest Complicated

manufacturing,
complexity

6. Failure Failure of belt does not cause the further Failure of chain may not seriously Failure of gear may cause serious
damage of machine. damage the machine. break down in the machine

7. Life Less Moderate Long

8. Lubrication Not required Required Requires proper lubrication

9. Installation cost Less Moderate More

10. Use For low velocity ratio For moderate velocity ratio For high velocity ratio
What is an Electrical Drive?
• An Electric Drive can be defined as, a system which is
used to control the movement of an electrical machine.
This drive employs a prime mover such as a petrol engine,
otherwise diesel, steam turbines otherwise gas, electrical
& hydraulic motors like a main source of energy. These
prime movers will supply the mechanical energy toward
the drive for controlling motion
An electric drive can be built with an electric drive motor
as well as a complicated control system to control the
motor’s rotation shaft. At present, the controlling of this
can be done simply using the software. Thus, the
controlling turns into more accurate & this drive concept
also offers the ease of utilizing.
Types of Electrical Drives…
• The types of electrical drives are two such as a
standard inverter as well as a servo drive. A
standard inverter drive is used to control the
torque & speed. A servo drive is used to control
the torque as well as speed, and also components
of the positioning machine utilized within
applications that need difficult motion.
Block Diagram of an Electrical Drive.
Electrical Drive…
Power Source
The power source in the above block diagram offers the necessary energy for the
system. And both the converter and the motor interfaces by the power source to
provide changeable voltage, frequency and current to the motor.
Power Modulator
This modulator can be used to control the o/p power of the supply. The power
controlling of the motor can be done in such a way that the electrical motor sends
out the speed-torque feature which is necessary with the load. During the
temporary operations, the extreme current will be drawn from the power source.
The drawn current from the power source may excess it otherwise can cause a
voltage drop. Therefor,e the power modulator limits the motor current as well as
the source.
The power modulator can change the energy based on the motor requirement. For
instance, if the basis is direct current & an induction motor can be used after that
power modulator changes the direct current into alternating current. And it also
chooses the motor’s mode of operation like braking otherwise motoring.
Electrical Drive…
Load
The mechanical load can be decided by the environment of the industrial
process & the power source can be decided by an available source at the place.
However, we can choose the other electric components namely electric motor,
controller, & converter.

Control Unit
The control unit is mainly used to control the power modulator, and this modulator
can operate at power levels as well as small voltage. And it also works the power
modulator as preferred. This unit produces the rules for the safety of the motor as
well as power modulator. The i/p control signal regulates the drive’s working point
from i/p toward the control unit.

Sensing Unit
The sensing unit in the block diagram is used to sense the particular drive factor
such as speed, motor current. This unit is mainly used for the operation of closed
loop otherwise protection.
Classification/Choice of
Electrical Drives…
• Classification of Electrical Drives

• Usually, these are classified into three types such as group drive,
individual drive, and multi-motor drive. Additionally, these drives
are further categorized based on the different parameters which are
discussed below.
• Electrical Drives are classified into two types based on supply
namely AC drives & DC drives.
• Electrical Drives are classified into two types based on running
speed namely Constant speed drives & changeable speed drives.
• Electrical Drives are classified into two types based on a number of
motors namely Single motor drives & multi-motor drives.
• Electrical Drives are classified into two types based on control
parameter namely stable torque drives & stable power drives.
Applications of Electrical Drives.
• The main application of this drive is electric traction which means
transportation of materials from one location to another location. The
different types of electric tractions mainly include electric trains,
buses, trolleys, trams, and solar-powered vehicles inbuilt with battery.
• Electrical drives are extensively used in the huge number of domestic
as well as industrial applications which includes motors,
transportation systems, factories, textile mills, pumps, fans, robots, etc.
• These are used as main movers for petrol or diesel engines, turbines
like gas otherwise steam, motors like hydraulic & electric.
• Thus, this is all about the fundamentals of electrical drives. From the
above information, finally, we can conclude that a drive is one kind of
electrical device used to control the energy which is sent to the
electrical motor. The drive supplies energy to the motor in unstable
amounts & at unstable frequencies, thus ultimately controls the speed
and torque of the motor.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Electrical Drives.
• ADVANTAGES: These dries are obtainable with an extensive
range of speed, power & torque.
• Not like other main movers, the requirement of refuel otherwise
heat up the motor is not necessary.
• They do not contaminate the atmosphere.
• Previously, the motors like synchronous as well as induction were
used within stable speed drives. Changeable speed drives utilize
a dc motor.
• They have flexible manage characteristics due to the utilization
of electric braking.
• At present, the AC motor is used within variable speed drives
because of semiconductor converters development.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Electrical Drives.
• DISADVANTAGES.
• This drive cannot be used where the power
supply is not accessible.
• The power breakdown totally stops the entire
system.
• The primary price of the system is expensive.
• The dynamic response of this drive is poor.
• The drive output power which is obtained is low.
• By using this drive noise pollution can occur.
4.2: Dynamic Characteristics of a
Motor.
• Q: Why study dynamic characteristics of a
motor?
• Ans: Whenever the motor is required to change
its steady state, dynamic characteristics are
required.
• Q: When does this happen?
• Ans: During start up, during application of
changes in load and during changes in motor
speed .
Remember control system when
we studied the dynamic response.
• Response to impulse, step and ramp response of
any system – zero, first or second order system.
• We learned about stability of the system as well
as what output response we get when we apply
impulse, step or ramp inputs to a system.
• Here also we study dynamic response of a motor
– whether DC or AC for similar reasons.
• We use a mathematical model to represent a
motor – a differential equation – and see the
responses of a motor.
Dynamic characteristics of an AC
motor
• The mathematical models are usually complex.
They are expressed in terms of inductances and
resistances with stator and rotor fluxes.
• On the model we apply sudden changes and
study the response curves.
• These models are NOT in your course.
• For illustration we see the response curves for
AC and DC motors.
Direct torque
control.
Dynamics control of a DC motor.
• DC motors are easier to model than AC motors.
• Their speed and torque have simple relations
though non-linear.
4.3: Fundamental torque equation,
Multi-quadrant operation.
• Let us see the diagram below

• J = Polar moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to

the motor shaft, kg-m2.
ωm = Instantaneous angular velocity of the motor shaft,
rad/sec.
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m.
T1 = Instantaneous value of load (resisting) torque, referred
to the motor shaft, N-m.
Fundamental torque equation,
Multi-quadrant operation.
• So, when the motor gets started, the load
connected to it may be rotational or may
undergo translational motion.
• Therefore, the load speed is different from that
of the speed of the motor. The equations below
show the equivalent rotational system, Let’s
represent the torque equation of the motor load
system from it.
Fundamental torque equation of
Electrical Drive.
• From, fundamental Torque Equations of
Electrical Drives, the above Figure (2.1) can be
written as:

• Note that Equation (2.1) is applicable to variable

inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives,
industrial robots.
Fundamental torque equation of
Electrical Drive.
• For drives with constant inertia, (dJ/dt) = 0. Therefore,

• In equation (2.2), Load torque T1 and dynamic torque

J(dωm/dt) will balance the motor torque.
• Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether
T is greater or less than T1. During acceleration, the
motor should supply not only the load torque but an
additional torque component J(dωm/dt) in order to
overcome the drive inertia.
Dynamic characteristics of an
Electrical Drive.
• In drives with large inertia, such as electric trains, motor
torque must exceed the load torque by a large amount in
order to get adequate acceleration. In drives requiring a
fast transient response, motor torque should be
maintained at the highest value and the Torque Equation
of the Motor Load System should be designed with the
lowest possible inertia.
• Energy associated with dynamic torque J(dωm/dt) is stored
in the form of kinetic energy given by (Jω2m/2). During
deceleration, dynamic torque J(dωm/dt) has a negative
sign. Therefore, it assists the motor developed torque T
and maintains drive motion by extracting energy from
stored kinetic energy.
END of Module 4.
Assignment 4
• Short questions:
• Q1) What is a drive? Differentiate between a Power
Supply and a Drive.
• Q2) Compare the 3 types of mechanical Drive Systems –
Belt, Chain and Gear drive.
• Q3) Write a short note on electrical Drive. Show its Block
Diagram.
• Q4) Why do we study the dynamic characteristics of a
motor? Where is this characteristic used?
• Q5) Explain which motor is easier to control – AC or DC
motor.
Assignment 4
• Long questions:
• Q1) With a block diagram give the parts of an Electrical
Drive. Explain the function of each part.
• Q2) Explain how to choose between Electrical Drives
based on application. Give example of each type.
• Q3) Explain why dynamic characteristics of a motor are
required. In which situation these dynamic
characteristics are used?
• Q4) Write the fundamental Torque equation of an
Electrical Drive and explain it.