NEUROANATOMY

THE BRAIN
 Overview of Nervous System
• Two Major Systems that maintain internal coordination

– endocrine = chemical messengers (hormones) delivered

to the bloodstream

– nervous = three basic steps

• sense organs receive information
• brain & spinal cord determine responses
• brain & spinal cord issue commands to glands &
muscles
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Subdivisions of Nervous System

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Two major anatomical subdivisions
• Central nervous system (CNS)
– brain & spinal cord enclosed in bony coverings
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– nerve = bundle of nerve fibers (axons) wrapped in
connective tissue
– ganglion = is a knotlike swelling in a nerve where the
cell bodies of neurons are concentrated 4
 Gray & White Matter
• Gray matter = neuron cell bodies, dendrites, &
synapses
– forms cortex over cerebrum & cerebellum
– forms nuclei deep within brain
• White matter = bundles of axons
– forms tracts that connect parts of brain

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 Gray & White Matter in CNS
• The brain has the same
basic design except that it
also contains additional
regions of gray matter
that are not evident in
the spinal cord

• Both the cerebral

hemispheres & the
cerebellum have an outer
layer or cortex of gray
matter
Cerebrum

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 The Cerebrum
– It is the upper & largest
part of the brain

– It is divided incompletely
into right & left cerebral
hemispheres by the median
longitudinal cerebral fissure

– At the floor of this fissure, a

mass of white matter called
the corpus collosum unites
the 2 cerebral hemispheres
together.
Insula
 Position of Cerebral Hemispheres
• The frontal lobes
occupy the anterior
cranial fossa
• The anterior parts of
the temporal lobes fill
the middle cranial
fossa
• The cerebellum &
brain stem occupies
the posterior cranial
fossa & the occipital
lobes occupy its upper
part
 The Cerebral Hemispheres
• The cerebral
hemispheres form the
superior part of the
brain
• These two structures
account for about 83%
of the mass of the
brain
• Nearly the entire
surface of the cerebral
hemispheres is
marked by elevated
ridges of tissues called
gyri separated by
shallow grooves called
sulci
• Deeper grooves called
fissures separate
larger regions of the
brain
• Prominent gyri & sulci
are similar in all
people

• The median
longitudinal fissure
separates the
hemispheres

• The transverse fissure

separates the cerebral
hemispheres from the
cerebellum below
Relations:
• the 2 cerebral hemispheres are separated from
– each other by a sickle- shaped fold of dura called the falx
cerbri, which occupies the median longitudinal cerebral
fissure
– the cerebellum by a horizontal fold of dura called the
tentorium cerebelli

Surfaces: 3 surfaces each

– Lateral
– Medial
– inferior
medial surface of the Cerebral Cortex

1. Frontal lobe

2. Parietal lobe

3. Temporal Lobe

4. Occipital lobe

5. Limbic lobe
Lateral (supero-lateral) Surface: is convex, directed upwards
& paterally & applied to the inner aspect of the vault of skull
Medial surface: is flattened & separated from the medial
surface of the other cerebral hemisphere by the median
longitudinal fissure containing the falx cerebri

• Medial surface of
the right
hemisphere
showing the
Parieto- occipital
sulcus
Inferior surface: irregular & is divided by the stem of the
lateral sulcus into 2 parts:
• ant part called orbital surface lying on the roof of orbit
• Post part called tentorial surface lying on the tentorium
cerebelli
 Lobes of Cerebral Hemispheres
• Deeper sulci
divide each
hemisphere into
five lobes Insula

– Frontal lobe
– Temporal lobe
– Parietal lobe
– Occipital lobe
– Insula (located
within the
lateral sulcus)
 Fissures of Cerebral Hemispheres
• Sulci divide
lobes of the
hemispheres
– Central sulcus
– Parieto-
occipital sulcus
– Lateral sulcus
– Transverse
fissure
• The 3 major sulci (Fissures) which divide the
hemisphere into lobes are:

The Central Sulcus (fissure of Rolando)

• Starts at a point a little behind the middle of the superior
border
• Runs obliquely downwards & forwards across the lat
surface
• It separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

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The Lateral Fissure (fissure of sylvius):
• Starts on the inf. surface of the hemisphere lat to the ant.
perforated substance
• Its stem extends laterally b/n the temporal & frontal lobes
to reach the lat surface where it divides into 3 rami:

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• The lat sulcus lodges:
• (1) the middle cerebral a & its branches
• (2) the deep middle cerebral vein

The parieto-occipital sulcus:

• It is found mainly on the med surface of the hemisphere in front
of the occipital pole
• Extends for a short distance on the lat surface 2 “in front of the
occipital pole

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 Cerebral Cortex
• Research on the structure & function of the brain
reveals that there are both specialized & diffuse areas
of function

• Motor & sensory areas are localized in discrete cortical

areas called domains

• Many higher mental functions such as memory &

language appear to have overlapping domains & are
more diffusely located

• Broadmann areas are areas of localized function

 Cerebral Cortex - Generalizations
• The cerebral cortex has three types of functional areas
– Motor areas / control voluntary motor function
– Sensory areas / provide conscious awareness of
sensation
– Association areas / act mainly to integrate diverse
information for purposeful action
• Each hemisphere is chiefly concerned with the sensory
& motor functions of the opposite (contralateral) side
of the body
 Although they are largely symmetrical in structure the
two hemispheres are not entirely equal in function,
instead there is lateralization of cortical function
The sulci & Gyri of the lateral surface
Frontal lobe
Important sulci:

Precentral sulcus:
• Lies nearly parallel to the central sulcus & about one finger’s
breadth in front of it

Sup. frontal sulcus

• Begins at the upper part of the precentral sulcus
• Runs forwards nearly parallel to the sup. border of the
hemisphere

Inf. frontal sulcus:

• Begins at the lower part of the precentral sulcus
• Runs forwards & downwards below the sup. frontal sulcus
Gyri of the Cerebral Cortex (Lateral Surface)
Important Gyri:
• The precentral gyrus: lies b/n the central sulcus & the
precentral sulcus

• The superior frontal gyrus: lies above the superior frontal

sulcus

• The middle frontal gyrus: lies b/n the sup frontal sulcus &
the inferior frontal sulcus

• The inferior frontal gyrus: lies below the inferior frontal

sulcus
Gyri of the Cerebral Cortex (Lateral Surface)
Gyri of
the Cerebral Cortex
(basal surface)
Important functional areas of the different
lobes of the cerebral hemispheres

• Cortical areas controlling motor functions lie

in the posterior part of the frontal lobes
• Motor areas include the
– primary motor cortex,
– premotor cortex,
– Broca’s area,
– front eye field
 Frontal Lobe
• The Motor area (area 4)
– occupies the precentral gyrus & extends to occupy
the ant part of the paracentral lobule
– the body is represented upside down in this gyrus;
i.e., the area of the lower limb occupies the upper
most part followed by the trunk, the upper limb, the
neck & the head
– Lesion of the area 4 results in contralateral
hemiplegia (of upper motor neuron lesion)
Motor
Somatotopy
• Body is represented
spatially in the primary
motor cortex of each
hemisphere
• Most of the neurons in
these gyri control
muscles in body areas
having the most precise
motor control
• The areas with the most
control (face,tongue,&
hands)
 Damage to PMC:

• Damage to the localized

areas of the primary
motor cortex paralyzes
the muscles controlled by
this area
• If the lesion is in the right
hemisphere, the left side
will be paralyzed
• Only voluntary control is
lost as the muscles can
still contract reflexively
Motor
Motor Homunculus
Homunculus
Premotor area (area 6):
– infront & parallel to
the motor area.
– It is the main
extrapyramidal area
for the body except
the eye (which is
found in the occipital
lobe)
• Broca’s Speach area (area 44,45)
– in the post part of inf. frontal gyrus in the dominant
hemisphere (left hemisphere in the right-handed
persons)
– it lies near to the motor area of the larynx, tongue & lips
(all together are necessary for speech)
– Injury to this are causes patients to speak slowly & with
effort (non fluent speech)
Frontal eye field (area 8):

• in front of the premotor

area, in the post part of
the middle frontal
gyrus.

• controls the voluntary

movements of the eyes

• engaged when we look

quickly at something, as
in moving our eyes to
follow a moving target
 Prefrontal Cortex…
• Cognition is all aspects
of thinking, perceiving &
of intentionally
remembering & recalling
information

• This cortex is necessary

for abstract ideas,
reasoning & judgment,
impulse control,
persistence, long term
planning
 Sensory Areas
• Areas concerned with the conscious awareness of
sensation in the parietal, temporal & occipital lobes
Parietal Lobe
• Primary somatosensory cortex (Main sensory
area ): area 3,1,2
– occupies the postcentral gyrus on the lat. surface of the
cerebral hemisphere & extends to the post part of the
paracentral lobule on the med surface
– It receives pain, touch, proprioception, temperature &
taste sensations from the opposite ½ of the body (the
body is represented upside down).
Sensory
Sensory Homunculus
Homunculus
Motor & Sensory Somatotopy
Temporal Lobe
• Auditory Sensory area (area 41, 42)

• located on the superior margin of the temporal

lobe, in the middle part of the sup temporal gyrus,
primarily inside the lateral sulcus (Heschl’s gyrus) :

• it receives the auditory radiation from the medial

geniculated body
• Auditory association area (area 22)
• Lies in the post part of sup temporal gyrus posterior
to the primary auditory area 22.
• It includes Wernicke’s speech area which is
connected to Broca’s area by the arcuate fasciculus
• it is responsible for knowing the meaning of sounds

 Injury of this area in the dominant hemisphere

leads to Wernicke’s aphasia: the patient finds
difficulty in comprehending speech/ understanding
spoken language.
The occipital Lobe

• Primary Visual Cortex/Visual Sensory area (area 17)

• found mainly in the med. surface of occipital lobe in
both banks of calcarine sulcus
• receives input visual sensation from the lateral
geniculate body via the optic radiation
• This cortex is the first of a series of cortical areas
that process visual input
Primary Visual Cortex…
Primary Visual Cortex…

• Most of the primary visual cortex is located on the

medial aspect of the occipital lobe buried within
the deep calcarine sulcus
 Visual association area (area 18,19)

• Lies in the cuneus & lingual gyrus

• surrounds the primary visual area &
encompasses much of the occipital lobe (18, 19)
• responsible for knowing the meaning of the
pictures seen
• Injury may result in visual hallucinations
• the gustatory cortex (area 43)
• Lies in the parietal &
parainsular cortex.
• It receives taste
impulses from the
thalamus.
• The gustatory cortex is
involved in the
conscious awareness of
taste stimuli
 Olfactory Area
• The primary olfactory cortex lie on the medial
aspects of the cerebrum in a small region called the
piriform lobe of which the hook-like uncus is the
dominant feature
 Vestibular (equilibrium) Cortex
• The cortex is
responsible for
conscious aware-
ness of the sense of
balance; specifically
the position of the
head in space
• Recent studies have
placed this region in
the posterior insula
deep in the lateral
sulcus
 Lateralization of Cortical Function
• We use both cerebral hemispheres for almost
every task and it appears the hemispheres
share memories and appear nearly identical

• However, there are differences and unique

abilities that are found in one hemisphere and
not the other

• This phenomenon is call lateralization

• Cerebral dominance suggest that there is one

hemisphere that dominates each task
 Lateralization of Cortical Function
• In most people (Approx. 90%) the left hemisphere has
greater control over language abilities, mathematical
abilities, and logic

• The other hemisphere (usually the right) is involved in

visual-spatial skills, intuition, emotion, and appreciation
of art and music

• Most individuals (90%) with left cerebral dominance

are right-handed

• In the remaining 10% the roles of the hemispheres are

reversed or the hemispheres share their functions
equally
• The basal nuclei:
– are involved in monitoring muscle movements that are
relatively slow & sustained or patterned
– regulate the intensity of these movements
– inhibit antagonistic or unnecessary movements

• When the basal nuclei are impaired, the result is

disturbances in posture & muscle tone, involuntary
movements including tremors, & abnormal slowness

• The basal nuclei receive inputs from the entire cerebral

cortex as well as from other subcortical nuclei

• Via relays through the thalamus, the basal nuclei

project to the premotor & prefrontal cortices
Basal Nuclei
The Caudate Nucleus (the nucleus with a tail)

• comma shaped mass of grey matter

• it consist of head, body & tail
 Basal Nuclei

• The putamen & globus pallidus together form a mass called the
lentiform nucleus
Lentiform Nucleus (Lens-like )
• resembles a biconvex lens which consists of 2 parts,
has 2 surfaces has surfaces & related to 2 capsules
• It consists of:
– Putamen: the larger darker lateral part
– Globus pallidus: the smaller, paler medial part.
• The Amygdaloid Nucleus
– It is a small rounded mass lying mostly in the uncus of
temporal lobe, joined to the tail of the caudate nucleus
– It is a smell centre
• The Corpus Striatum
• It is the name given to:
– the caudate nucleus
– the lentiform nucleus &
– the intervening ant. limb of internal capsule
• They are called so because they show a striated
appearance
 Ventricles of the Brain
• The ventricles of
the brain arise
from the
expansion of the
neural tube
• They are
continuous with
each other &
with the central
canal of the
spinal cord
 Ventricles of the Brain
• The hollow
ventricular
chambers are
filled with
cerebrospinal
fluid & lined
by ependymal
cells
The lateral ventricles
• The paired lateral ventricles are large C-shaped chambers
that reflect the pattern of cerebral growth

• One lateral ventricle is located in each cerebral hemisphere

lined by ependymal cells

• Anteriorly, the lateral ventricles lie close together separated

only by a thin median membrane called the septum
pellucidum

• Each ventricle communicates with the narrow third

ventricle in the diencephalon through the inter- ventricular
foramen (foramen of Moro)
 The third ventricle
• The third ventricle
is continuous with
the fourth
ventricle via the
canal-like cerebral
aqueduct that runs
through the
midbrain
 The fourth ventricle
• The fourth ventricle which lies dorsal to the pons &
posterior to the medulla, is continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord inferiorly

• Three openings mark the walls of the fourth

ventricle
– Paired lateral apertures
– Median aperture

• Apertures connect the ventricles to the

subarachnoid space
 Choroid Plexus
• Choroid plexus
hang from the roof
of each ventricle

• The plexuses are

clusters of thin
walled capillaries
enclosed by a layer
of ependymal cells
The Diencephalon
Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Epithalamus
Subdivision of the diencephalons
• Subdivided into 5 parts:
– Thalamus (bilateral): the largest part
– Subthalamus: the part lying directly above medbrain
– Hypothalamus: lies infront of the subthalamus
– Metathalamus (bilateral): formed by the lat & medial
geniculate bodies
– Epithalamus: formed of the pineal body, the 2
habenular trigones & hobenular cimmissure.

• These structures effectively enclose the third

ventricle
Hypothalamus
• It is the part of the diencephalons which lies in
front of subthalamus & anteroinferior to the
thalamus.

• It extends from the lamina terminalis anteriorly to

the mamillary bodies posteriorly
Hypothalamus…
• Secretes hormones
that regulate homeostasis.
– hormone secretion (pituitary)
– autonomic NS control
– thermoregulation (thermostat)
– food & water intake (hunger & satiety)
– sleep & circadian rhythms
– memory (mammillary bodies)
– emotional behavior
• anger, aggression, fear,
• pleasure, sex drive, orgasm
 Autonomic Control Center
• The hypothalamus regulates involuntary
nervous activity by controlling the activity
of autonomic centers in the brain stem and
spinal cord
• In this role the hypothalamus influences
– Blood pressure
– Rate and force of heart contraction
– Motility of the digestive system
– Respiratory rate and depth
– Secretion of sweat and salivary glands
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