Unit-IV

Sampling
Dr. Atul Fegade
Outline – Sampling
• a. Basic Concepts: Defining the Universe, Element Vs. Unit, Concepts
of Statistical Population, Sample, Characteristics of a good sample.
Sampling Frame, Sampling errors, Non Sampling errors,
 Sampling Concepts
• Sampling: It is a process of selecting an adequate number of
elements from the population so that the study of the sample will
not only help in understanding the characteristics of the population
but will also enable us to generalize the results.
• Census (or complete enumeration): An examination of each and
every element of the population is called census or complete
enumeration.
 Defining Universe
• ‘Universe’
• ‘population’

• Example:-
• All Students
• All SBUP students
• ………..
 Sampling Concepts
• Population: Any group of people or objects that form the subject
of study in a particular survey and are similar in one or more ways.
• Element: An element comprises a single member of the
population.
• Sampling frame: Comprises all the elements of a population with
proper identification that is available to us for selection at any
stage of sampling.
• Sample: It is a subset of the population comprising some elements
of the population.
• Sampling unit: A sampling unit is a single member of the sample.
 Sampling Design
• Define the target population and case
• People, Organizations, Events or happenings, Objects or artifacts, Settings and
environments, Texts
• Finite and Infinite
• Define the population parameters of interest in the population
• Interval or ratio - mean, SD; Nominal/Ordinal - proportions, Variance
• Identify and evaluate the sample frame
• List of cases,
• Choose the sample size
• Cost, speed, availability, quality, accuracy, precision
• Define the appropriate sampling method
Characteristics of a good sample
• Accurate • Comprehensive
• Practical • Easily accessible
• Feasible • Satisfy the objective
• Economical • True Representative of
• Adequate Size Population
• Free from bias • Selected by proper
sampling method
 Sampling Error
• When the sample used in the study does not represent the entire
population.
• The difference between the sample mean and the population mean is
called sampling error
• The sampling error reduces with the increase in sample size
• Example – Determining the weight of 200 students by taking sample.
 Non- Sampling Error
• The respondents when asked for information on a particular variable may
not give the correct answers
• Error while transferring the data from the questionnaire to the
spreadsheet on the computer
• There can be errors at the time of coding, tabulation and computation.
• If the population of the study is not properly defined, it could lead to
errors.
• The chosen respondent may not be available to answer the questions or
may refuse to be part of the study.
• There may be a sampling frame error.
Question
• A market researcher surveys 85 people on their coffee-
drinking habits. She wants to know whether people in
the local region are willing to switch their regular drink
to something new.
• What is the sample in this case?
Question
• Define the appropriate target population and the sampling
frame for following:
• A retail chain store wants to determine the shopping behaviour of
customer who have store’s credit cards
• A local TV channel wants to determine the household’s viewing
habits and program preference
Outline – Sampling
• b. Probability Sample: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling,
Stratified Sampling, Area Sampling & Cluster Sampling.
• c. Non Probability Sample: Judgment Sampling, Convenience
Sampling, Purposive Sampling, Quota Sampling & Snowball Sampling
methods. Determining size of the sample - Practical considerations in
sampling and sample size
Classification of Sampling Techniques
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient
elements. Often, respondents are selected because they happen to be in
the right place at the right time.

• Use of students, and members of social organizations

• Mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents
• Department stores using charge account lists
• “People on the street” interviews
A Graphical Illustration of Convenience
Sampling
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling – The population elements are selected
based on the judgment of the researcher.
• Test markets
• Purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research
• Voters selected in voting behavior research
• Expert witnesses used in court
• Departmental stores selected to test new merchandising display
Graphical Illustration of Judgmental
Sampling
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling - two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.
• 1st stage - developing control categories, or quotas, of population
elements.
• 2nd stage- sample elements are selected based on convenience or
judgment.
Population Composition Sample Composition
Control Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
100 100 1,000
A Graphical Illustration of Quota
Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is
selected, usually at random.
• After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to
identify others who belong to the target population of
interest.
• Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals.
A Graphical Illustration of Snowball
Sampling
 Example-1
A market researcher wants to find out what members of the public
think about a new chocolate bar that has just been produced.
He wants to make sure that all sections of the population are
represented in the sample, so he works out what major characteristics
are important (gender, age and ethnicity, for example) and then how
many people from each of these categories should be sampled.
He stands on a street corner and chooses people that fit into each
category, until the target number within each category is reached.
 Example-2
A researcher is interested in finding out about graffiti in her local
city. One aspect of this research is to speak to those who produce
graffiti. She realizes that she has to be trusted and establish rapport
with these people before they will talk to her. Through personal
contacts she comes across a person who admits to producing graffiti
at a site in the vicinity. The researcher is able to talk to this person,
establish a good relationship and gain some useful information. This
person then recommends a friend who is also willing to talk to the
researcher. This continues, with one person recommending another
and so on, until the researcher has spoken to 15 different people.
Example-3

A researcher wants to find out what students think of the

entertainment facilities on a university campus. He stands
by the entrance to the university library and stops students
as they pass by, asking a series of questions about the
university entertainment facilities. He does this until he
has asked the opinion of 100 students.
Probability Sampling Techniques
• Sampling efficiency
• Precision,
• Sampling cost,
• Sampling error
Simple Random Sampling
• Each element in the population has a known and equal
probability of selection.
• Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and
equal probability of being the sample actually selected.
• This implies that every element is selected independently of
every other element.
• lottery system
A Graphical Illustration of Simple
Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling (1 of 2)
• The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then
picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.
• The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size
N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer. (i = N/n)
• When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of
interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of the
sample.
Systematic Sampling (2 of 2)
• If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern,
systematic sampling may decrease the representativeness of
the sample.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population
and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling
interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 and 100 is
selected. If, for example, this number is 23, the sample
consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
A Graphical Illustration of Systematic
Sampling
Stratified Sampling (1 of 3)
• A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into
subpopulations, or strata.
• The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in
that every population element should be assigned to one and only one
stratum and no population elements should be omitted.
• Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure,
usually SRS.
• A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision without
increasing cost.
Stratified Sampling (2 of 3)
• The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as
possible, but the elements in different strata should be as
heterogeneous as possible.
• The stratification variables should also be closely related to the
characteristic of interest.
• Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification
process by being easy to measure and apply.
• Demographic characteristics, type of customer, size or type of firm
etc.
Stratified Sampling (3 of 3)
• In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample drawn
from each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum
in the total population.
• In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample from
each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum and
to the standard deviation of the distribution of the characteristic of
interest among all the elements in that stratum.
𝑁1
•, 𝑛1= 𝑛∗
𝑁
A Graphical Illustration of Stratified
Sampling
Cluster Sampling (1 of 2)
• The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive
and collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.
• Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a
probability sampling technique such as SRS.
• For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included
in the sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn
probabilistically (two-stage).
Cluster Sampling (2 of 2)
• Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but
clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally,
each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.
• In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are
sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage, the
probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster varies
inversely with the size of the cluster.
• A corporate office in a multi-story building
A Graphical Illustration of Cluster
Sampling (2-Stage)
Types of Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling
• Area Sampling
• Geographic areas, such as counties/states, housing
tracts, or blocks
• All households in a block – single stage area sampling
• Sample of blocks and then sample households in a
block - two-(multi)stage area sampling
 Cluster Sampling Vs. Stratified Sampling
Factor Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling (One-Stage)
Objective Increase precision Decrease cost
Subpopulations All strata are included A sample of clusters is chosen
Within subpopulations Each stratum should be Each cluster should be
homogeneous heterogeneous
Across subpopulations Strata should be Clusters should be
heterogeneous homogeneous
Sampling frame Needed for the entire Needed only for the selected
population clusters
Selection of elements Elements selected from each All elements from each selected
stratum randomly cluster are included
Example-1 Name the sampling technique
A researcher wants to find out how many children are
absent from school in a given month. It is important to
ensure that every school in the country has an equal
chance of being chosen so that generalizations can be
made. He obtains a list of every school, assigns each a
number and, using an online random number
generator, creates a list of schools to which he can send
his questionnaire.
Example-2 Name the sampling technique
A researcher wants to find out about participation in
sport among undergraduate students from different
subject areas studying at a particular university. It is
important to the researcher that he is able to interview
students from all subject areas as he wants to find out
whether there is a connection between subject studied
and participation in sport. He decides to arrange his
sample by undergraduate subject and then, within each
subject, choose students on a random basis.
Choosing Nonprobability Vs. Probability
Sampling
Blank Conditions Favoring the Use of Blank
Factors Nonprobability Sampling Probability Sampling
Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive
Relative magnitude of sampling Nonsampling errors are larger Sampling errors are
and nonsampling errors larger
Variability in the population Homogeneous (low) Heterogeneous (high)
Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable
Operational considerations Favorable Unfavorable
Time Favorable Unfavorable
Cost Favorable Unfavorable
Determination of Sample Size
The size of the population does not influence the size of the sample

Methods of determining the sample size in practice:

Researchers may arbitrary decide the size of sample without giving
any explicit consideration to the accuracy of the sample results or the
cost of sampling.
The total budget for the field survey in a project proposal is allocated.
Researchers may decide on the sample size based on what was done
by the other researchers in similar studies.
 Determination of Sample Size
Confidence interval approach for determining the size of the sample

The following points are taken into account for determining the sample size
in this approach.

The variability of the population: Higher the variability as measured by

the population standard deviation, larger will be the size of the sample.
The confidence attached to the estimate: Higher the confidence the
researcher wants for the estimate, larger will be sample size.
The allowable error or margin of error: Greater the precision the research
seeks, larger would be the size of the sample.
 Determination of Sample Size
Sample size for estimating population mean - The formula for
determining sample size is given as: (For continuous or interval scaled
variables)

Where

n = Sample size
σ = Population standard deviation
e = Margin of error
Z = The value for the given confidence interval
Determination of Sample Size
Sample size for estimating population proportion –
1. When population proportion p is known
p - the frequency of occurrence of
something expressed as a proportion
q - the frequency of non-occurrence of the
same event

2. When population proportion p is not known

Adjusting the statistically determined
sample size
• Incidence rate refers to the rate of occurrence or the percentage of
persons eligible to participate in the study
• Determines how many contacts need to be screened for a given sample size
requirement
• The completion rate denotes the percentage of qualified respondents
who complete the interview.’
• Incidence rate = Q1 * Q2 * Q3 ……… * Qc
• Initial sample size = Final sample size / (Incidence * Completion rate)
• Response Rate = Number of Completed Interviews / Number of
Eligible Units in Sample
Improving Response Rates