2.

Measurement & Scaling

Dr. Atul Fegade
Outline Session – Concept of Measurement
• What is measured?
• Levels of measurement - Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and
Ratio.
• Problems in measurement in management research - Validity
and Reliability.
• Different types of Validity and Reliability measurement,
Measurement
• In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some
yardstick to determine weight, age, height, or some other
feature of a physical object.
• We also measure when we judge how well we like a song, a
painting or the personalities of our friends.
• Assigning numbers to empirical events, objects or properties,
or activities in compliance with a set of rules
Measurement
• Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to
characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified
rules.
• We do not measure consumers—only their perceptions, attitudes,
preferences, or other relevant characteristics
• Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured
objects are located
• Attitude towards a brand (1-100) (1 extremely unfavorable, and 100 extremely
favorable)
What is measured?
• Variable – Objects and Properties
• Objects - tangible items like furniture, laundry detergent, people,
or automobiles. Also includes genes, attitudes, and peer-group
pressures.
• Properties are the characteristics of the object.
• A person’s physical properties - weight, height, and posture etc.
• Psychological properties - attitudes and intelligence.
• Social properties - leadership ability, class affiliation, and status
• Measure indicants of the properties or indicants of the properties
of objects
Scale Characteristics and Levels of
Measurement
• Description
• By description, we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each
value of the scale. All scales possess description.
• Order
• By order, we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted by
descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.
• Distance
• The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale
descriptors are known and may be expressed in units.
• Origin
• The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero
point.
Types of Scales
Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio
 Nominal Scale
• Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols
to events in order to label them.
• Example of this is the assignment of numbers of cricket
players, (Sachin Tendulkar- 10 , M. S. Dhoni- 7)
• Roll nos. of students, token nos., AADHAR, PAN no
• No ordered scale, nos. are just convenient labels
• Keeping track of objects, people, events
• Statistics – Frequency Counting: Percentage and Mode
 Ordinal Scale
• A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the
relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
• Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than
some other object, but not how much more or less.
• Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered
relationships between the objects.
• Quality rankings, rankings of teams in a tournament, socioeconomic class etc.
(Relative attitude, opinions, perceptions, and preferences)
• Statistics: counting operation plus, the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g.,
percentile, quartile, median.
 Interval Scale
• Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the
characteristic being measured.
• It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
• The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the
units of measurement are arbitrary.
• Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the
properties of the scale.
• Example: Temperature, Attitude scales, Credit Score
• It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
• Statistical techniques – all techniques applied to nominal and ordinal
data, + arithmetic mean, standard deviation etc.
 Ratio Scale
• Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval
scales.
• It has an absolute zero point.
• It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
• Example: height, weight, age, and money
• In Mktg. - sales, costs, market share, and number of customers
• Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is
a positive constant, are allowed.
• All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.
 Measurement Scale
Type of Characteristics of Data Basic Empirical Example
Scale operation
Nominal Classification (mutually exclusive Determination of Gender (male, female)
and collectively exhaustive equality
categories), but no order, distance,
or natural origin
Ordinal Classification and order, but no Determination of greater Quality of Product
distance or natural origin or lesser value (Excellent ……… Very
poor)
Interval Classification, order, and distance, Determination of Temperature in degrees
but no natural origin equality of intervals or
differences

Ratio Classification, order, distance, and Determination of Age in years

natural origin equality of ratios
 Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale Basic Characteristics Common Examples Marketing Examples Descriptive Inferential

Nominal Numbers identify and Social Security Brand numbers, Percentages, Chi-square, binomial
classify objects numbers, numbering store types, sex mode test
of football players classification
Ordinal Numbers indicate the Quality rankings, Preference rankings, Percentile, Rank-order
relative positions of the rankings of teams in market position, median correlation,
objects but not the a tournament social class Friedman ANOVA
magnitude of differences
between them
Interval Differences between Temperature Attitudes, opinions, Range, mean, Product-moment
objects can be compared; (Fahrenheit, index numbers standard correlations, t-tests,
zero point is arbitrary centigrade) deviation ANOVA, regression,
factor analysis
Ratio Zero point is fixed; ratios Length, weight Age, income, costs, Geometric mean, Coefficient of
of scale values can be sales, market shares harmonic mean variation
computed
Identify the type of scale from the
following
• How old are you? ___________

• How much money did you spend last month on

entertainment? ___________

• I like to solve the crossword puzzle

Identify the type of scale from the
following
Identify the type of scale from the
following
Sources of Error in Measurement

Participant/ The respondent

Situation

Measurer

Instrument
 Characteristics of good
measurement
Validity and Reliability

• Validity is the extent to which a test

measures what we actually wish to
measure.
• Reliability has to do with the
accuracy and precision of a
measurement procedure
 Validity and Reliability
• Validity (Internal)
• Content
• The extent to which measurement scales provide adequate coverage of the investigative
questions
• Measuring store image would be considered inadequate if it omitted any of the major
dimensions
• Criterion
• Reflects the success of measures used for prediction or estimation
• Bases on time period - concurrent and predictive validity
• Can total Sales per Salesperson indicate territory market potential?
• Relevance, freedom from bias, reliability, and availability
• Construct
• What the construct or characteristics of scale is measuring.
• Convergent, Discriminant
Summary of Validity Estimates
Types What Is Measured Methods
Content Degree to which the content of the items adequately • Judgmental.
represents the universe of all relevant items under • Panel evaluation.
study.
Criterion- Degree to which the predictor is adequate in capturing • Concurrent.
related the relevant aspects of the criterion.
Concurrent Description of the present; criterion data are available at • Correlation.
the same time as predictor scores.

Predictive Prediction of the future; criterion data are measured • Correlation.

after the passage of time.
Construct Answers the question, “What accounts for the variance • Judgmental.
in the measure?”; attempts to identify the underlying • Correlation of proposed
construct(s) being measured and determine how well test with established one.
the test represents it (them). • Convergent-discriminant
techniques.
• Factor analysis.
Reliability
• Stability
• Consistent results with repeated measurements of the same person
with the same instrument
• Test-Retest, Correlation
• Internal Consistency
• A characteristic of an instrument in which the items are homogeneous
• The split-half technique and Cronbach’s alpha
• Equivalence
• Variations at one point in time among observers and samples of items
Outline Session – 2.b
• Attitude Scaling Techniques:
• Concept of Scale – Rating Scales viz.
• Likert Scales, Semantic Differential Scales, Constant Sum Scales,
• Graphic Rating Scales, Ranking Scales
• Paired Comparison & Forced Ranking - Concept and Application
Nature of Attitudes

Cognitive I think oatmeal is healthier than corn flakes for breakfast.

Affective I hate oatmeal for breakfast.

Behavioral I intend to eat more oatmeal for breakfast.

Attitude Scaling Techniques
• Attitude Scaling
• The process of assessing an attitudinal disposition using a
number that represents a person’s score on an attitudinal
continuum ranging from an extremely favourable
disposition to an extremely unfavourable one.
 Selecting a Measurement Scale
1. Research Objectives
• Studies of attitude, attitude change,
persuasion, awareness, purchase
intention, cognition and action, actual
and repeat purchase
2. Response types
• rating, ranking, categorization, sorting
scales
3. Data properties
• Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
4. Number of dimensions
• unidimensional or multidimensional
(measuring actor’s star power)
5. Balanced or Unbalanced:
• very good—good—average—poor—
very poor.
• poor—fair—good—very good—
excellent
6. Forced or unforced choices
• Select either of the alternatives or
No Opinion
7. Number of scale points
• 3 point, 5 point, 7-11 point scale
8. Rater errors
• error of central tendency; error of
leniency (Easy or Hard raters); halo
effect
 Rating Scales
• Simple Attitude Scales
• Simple category scale (dichotomous scale)
• Multiple choice scale – Single Response, Multiple Response
• Likert Scale (Developed by Rensis Likert)
• Summated Rating Scales
• Semantic Differential Scales
• measures the psychological meanings of an attitude object using bipolar
adjectives
• For studying brand and institutional image
• Multiple Rating Scales
• Constant-Sum Scales
Rating Scale
• Graphic Rating Scales
• Ranking Scales
• Vote Share %
• Party-A – 40%
• Party-B – 30%
• Party-C – 30%
Sample Rating S
cales
 The Internet is superior to
Sample Rating S
traditional libraries for
comprehensive searches.
cales • Strongly Disagree.
• Disagree.
• Neither Agree nor
Disagree.
• Agree.
• Strongly Agree.
Sample Rating Scales
Adapting SD Scales
SD Scale for Analyzing Industry Association Candidates 1
Graphic
Representation of
SD Analysis 1

Back
Sample Rating S
cales
Constant-Sum Question
Sample Rating S
cales
Ranking Scales
• Paired Comparison
• Forced Ranking
• Comparative
Application Questions
• Develop a Likert, a semantic differential, and a rating scale
for measuring store loyalty
Application Questions
• Assume you are D&D Automobile Ltd and you planned a major
research study just prior to the largest vehicle recall in the history of
company. You plan to proceed with the study and feel you must add
one or more questions to measure the consumer’s confidence that
your firm will be able to recover. Draft a scale for each of the following
types that will measure that confidence.
• Constant-sum scale.
• Likert-type summated scale.
• Semantic differential scale.
• Forced ranking scale.
1. What is wrong in following questions?
2. How to rectify it?
• What is wrong with the young people of today and what can
we do about it?

• Do you go swimming?
• Never
• Rarely
• Frequently
• Sometimes
1. What is wrong in following questions?
2. How to rectify it?
• What do you think can be done about global warming?

• Most medical professionals agree that smoking causes lung

disease. Do you:
• Strongly agree
• Agree
• Neither agree nor disagree
• Disagree
• Strongly disagree
1. What is wrong in following questions?
2. How to rectify it?
• Do you agree that students should not have to take an exam at
the end of their course?
• Yes
• No

• Has your son ever stolen anything? If so, what and when?
Outline Session – 2.c
• Types of Data – Primary Data & Secondary Data
• Concept of Literature Review,
• Sources, and limitations of Secondary data.
• Different Types of primary data collection methods
Primary Vs. Secondary Data
• Primary data is original, problem or project specific and
collected for the specific objectives and needs spelt out by
the researcher. The authenticity and relevance is reasonably
high.

• Secondary data is information that is not topical or research

specific and has been collected and compiled by some other
researcher or investigative body. It is recorded and
published in a structured format.
A Comparison of Primary & Secondary
Data

Blank Primary Data Secondary Data

Collection purpose For the problem at For other problems
hand
Collection process Very involved Rapid and easy
Collection cost High Relatively low
Collection time Long Short
Concept of Literature Review
• The process of locating, obtaining, reading, and evaluating
the research literature in your area of interest
• Reading critically
• Systematic review
• Narrative review
• Searching Databases – Online, Keywords and defining search
parameters
• Referencing – Style & Avoiding plagiarism
 How to conduct and write review of
literature
• Narrow your topic and select papers accordingly
• Time period, Location, Category, Issues (Successful Companies, Comics)
• Search for literature
• Source selection criteria, keywords, reference lists of recent articles and reviews,
include contrary studies also
• Read the selected articles thoroughly and evaluate them
• Evaluate and Synthesize – Assumptions, methodologies, testing procedures,
experts in the field, Conflicting theories and results, timeline of topic
• Organize the selected papers by looking for patterns and by developing
subtopics
• Common findings, important trends, most influential theories
• Writing and Review
 Secondary Data
• “Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they
refer to the data which have already been collected and analysed
by someone else”.

• W. A. Neiswanger, secondary data is defined as, “ A secondary

source is a publication, reporting the data which have been
gathered by other authorities and for which others are
responsible”.

• Secondary data is already processed and complied with

evaluation.
 Internal

Company Employee Financial Other

Sales Data
Record Record Records Publications
External Published Data

Government Other Data Computer Syndicated Data Institutional

Sources Sources Stored Data Sources Syndicated data

Books and Reference

Census Data Surveys Store Audits
periodicals Database

Other Govt. Consumer

Guides Online
Publications Purchase Panels

Directories and
Media Surveys
Indices

Standard non-
governmental
statistical data
 External sources of secondary data
Government Publications: -

 Government sources provide an extremely rich pool of data for

the researchers.

 In addition, many of these data are available free of cost on

internet websites.

 There are number of government agencies generating data.

 External sources of secondary data
Government Publications: -
- Registrar General of India (Demographic data)
- Central Statistical Organization (National accounts statistics)
- Director General of Commercial Intelligence (Import Export data)
- Ministry of Commerce and Industries (Price Index)
- Planning Commission (Statistics of Indian Economy)
- Reserve Bank of India (Banking saving and investments)
- Labor Bureau (Data related to skilled, unskilled, human resource)
Some Useful URLs for Data in India –
Govt.
• http://censusindia.gov.in/
• https://www.mospi.gov.in/ (Statistics data)
• http://www.dgciskol.gov.in/ (Export and Import data)
• https://commerce.gov.in/ (Ministry of Commerce)
• https://dea.gov.in/ (Dept of Economics-MOF)
• https://www.niti.gov.in/
 External sources of secondary data
Non-Government Publications: -
- These includes publications of various industrial and trade associations,
such as
- The Indian Cotton Mill Association
- Various chambers of commerce
- The Bombay Stock Exchange (it publishes a directory containing financial
accounts, key profitability and other relevant matter)
- Various Associations of Press Media.
- Export Promotion Council.
- Small Industries Development Board of India
- Different Mills like – Woolen mills, Textile mills etc.
- All of them provide reports of their activities.
Some Useful URLs for Data in India – Non
Govt.
• BSE/NSE
• The commodity board or the industry associations like Jute Board,
Cotton Industry
• https://ficci.in/
• https://www.assocham.org/
• https://www.iaccindia.com/
• https://orgindia.com/
• https://imrbint.com/
 External sources of secondary data
Syndicate Services: -

- These services are provided by certain organizations which collect and

tabulate the marketing information on a regular basis for a number of
clients who are the subscribers to these services.
- So the services are designed in such a way that the information suits the
subscriber.
- These services are useful in television viewing, movement of consumer
goods etc.
- These syndicate services provide information data from both household as
well as institution.
 External sources of secondary data
Syndicate Services: -

- https://www.nielsen.com/
- https://www.ipsos.com/en-in
- https://imrbint.com/
- https://www.idc.com/in
 Limitations of Secondary Data
• Availability- It has to be seen that the kind of data you want is available or
not. If it is not available then you have to go for primary data.
• Relevance- It should be meeting the requirements of the problem. For this
we have two criterion:-
• Units of measurement should be the same.
• Concepts used must be same and currency of data should not be outdated.
• Accuracy- In order to find how accurate the data is, the following points
must be considered: -
• Specification and methodology used;
• Margin of error should be examined;
• The dependability of the source must be seen.
• Sufficiency- Adequate data should be available.
 Concept of Primary data
 The data collected by the researcher for himself or herself for
finding the solutions of a particular problem or situation, is called
as primary data.

 Primary data is defined as, “ A primary source is a publication in

which the data are published by the same authority which gather
and analyse them.”

 Researchers should take additional care while colleting primary

data such that it is accurate, reliable and unbiased.
Different Types of Primary data collection
methods
Smoothing
techniques
(Moving or
Weighted Avg.)
Time series Barometric
analysis method

Quantitative
Methods
Different Types of Primary data collection
methods
Delphi
Interviews
Techniques

Focus
Polls
Groups

Survey
Qualitative Questionnai
Methods re
Outline – III.e
• Questionnaire Method:
• Questionnaire Vs. Schedule, Questionnaire Construction
• Personal Interviews, Telephonic survey Interviewing, Email/Internet
survey, Google Forms, online survey sites, their utility, and
constraints.
 The questionnaire method
• A schedule, interview form, or measuring instrument,
• A formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents
• This is the simplest and most often used method of primary data collection
• There is a pre-determined set of questions in a sequential format
• Is designed to suit the respondent’s understanding and language
command
• Can be conducted to collect useful data from a large population in a short
duration of time
Criteria for questionnaire design
• The spelt out research objectives need to be converted into
specific questions

• It must be designed to engage the respondent and

encourage meaningful response

• The questions should be designed in simple language and be

self-explanatory
Types of questionnaire
Formalized Non Formalized

Unconcealed Most research studies use The response categories have

Standardized Questionnaires like more flexibility
these.

Concealed Used for assessing psychographic and Questionnaires using

subjective constructs projective techniques or
sociometric analysis
 Types of questionnaire
Formalized & unconcealed questionnaire: self-explanatory with most response
categories predefined
Out of the following options, where do you invest
(tick all that apply)
Precious metals----------------, real estate------------, stocks---------,
Government instruments---------, mutual funds------any other-------

Who carries out your investments?

Myself-----------, agent---------, relative-----------, friend------------, any other----------

What is your source of information for these decisions?

Newspaper------------, investment magazines-----------, company records etc.----------,
Trading portals------------, agent------------
 Types of questionnaire
Formalized & concealed questionnaire: most response categories are
predefined, but latent cause of behaviour are derived from indirect
questions
Please indicate level of your agreement for the following statements.
SA - Strongly Agree; A-Agree; N-Neutral; SD- Strongly Disagree; D-Disagree
SA A N D SD

1 The individual of the present era is better informed about

everything than the individual before.
2 I believe that one must live for the day and worry about
tomorrow later.
3 An individual must at all times keep abreast of what is
happening in the world around him/her.
4 Books are best friends anyone can have.

5 I generally read and then decide what to buy.

 Types of questionnaire
Non-formalized & unconcealed questionnaire: undisguised and most
response categories are not predefined

Why do you think Maggi noodles are liked by young children?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------

How do you generally decide on where you are going to invest your money?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Give three reasons why you believe that the private sports leagues in India
are going to help the sportsmen?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Types of questionnaire
Non-formalized & concealed questionnaire: disguised and most response
categories are not predefined, e.g.
Given below are two grocery lists –personify the user
Types of questionnaire method of
administration
• Self-administered questionnaire: respondents fills in
the questionnaire him/her self

• Schedule: the investigator/researcher reads out the

questions and records the respondents’ answers.
Criteria for questionnaire selection
• Population characteristics

• Population spread

• Study area
Mode of administration: Schedule
OTT T.V. SERIAL RANK ORDER
1. 1 ___________________

2. 2 ___________________

3. 3 ___________________

4. 4 ___________________

5. 5 ___________________

6. 6 ___________________

7. 7 ___________________

8. 8 ___________________

9. 9 ___________________

10. 10 ___________________
 Mode of administration: telephone
Web Series

1. Game of Thrones 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. Breaking Bad 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. Mirzapur 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4. The Walking Dead 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5. Sacred Games 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6. Chernobyl 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7. The Family Man 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8. The Blacklist 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9. Lucifer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10. Locke & Key 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mode of administration: mail
Series RANK ORDER
1. Game of Thrones ___________________
2. Breaking Bad ___________________
3. Mirzapur ___________________
4. The Walking Dead ___________________
5. Sacred Games ___________________
6. Chernobyl ___________________
7. The Family Man ___________________
8. The Blacklist ___________________
9. Lucifer ___________________
10. Locke & Key ___________________
 Individual Question Content – Are Several
Questions Needed Instead of One?
• Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the required
information in an unambiguous manner. Consider the question:

“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink?”

(Incorrect)

“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?” and

“Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?”
(Correct)
 Motivating the respondent to answer
Assisting the respondent to provide the answer
Does he have the answer?

1. How do you evaluate the negotiation skills module with the Communication and
presentation skill module? (Incorrect)

1. Have you been through the following training modules?

Negotiation skills module Yes/no
Communication & presentation skills Yes/no
In case the answer to both is yes, please answer the following question else move to
the next question.
How do you evaluate the negotiation skills module with the Communication and
presentation skill module? (Correct)
 Motivating the respondent to answer
Assisting the respondent to provide the answer
How much did you spend on eating out last month? (Incorrect)
1. When you go out to eat, on an average your bill amount is:
________ Less than Rs100
________ Rs 101-250
________ Rs 251-500
________ more than Rs 500
2. How often do you eat out in a week?
________ 1-2 times.
________ 3-4 times
________ 5-6 times
________ every day (correct)
Motivating the respondent to answer
Assisting the respondent to provide the answer
Can he articulate?
Describe the river rafting experience.……... (incorrect)
Describe the river rafting experience ( Correct)

1 Unexciting        exciting

2 Bad        good

3 Boring        interesting

4 Cheap        expensive

5 Safe        dangerous
Overcoming Inability to Answer – Can the
Respondent Remember?
How many gallons of soft drinks did you consume during the last four
weeks? (Incorrect)

How often do you consume soft drinks in a typical week?

(Correct)
1. ___ Less than once a week
2. ___ 1 to 3 times per week
3. ___ 4 to 6 times per week
4. ___ 7 or more times per week
Overcoming Inability to Answer – Can the
Respondent Articulate?
• Respondents may be unable to articulate certain types of responses,
e.g., describe the atmosphere of a department store.
• Respondents should be given aids, such as pictures, maps, and
descriptions to help them articulate their responses.
Assisting the respondent to answer
Sensitive information/topic
Have you ever used fake receipts to claim your medical allowance?
(Incorrect)
Have you ever spit tobacco on the road (to tobacco consumers)?
(Incorrect)

Do you associate with people who use fake receipts to claim their medical
allowance? (Correct)
Do you think tobacco consumers spit tobacco on the road?
(Correct)
 Overcoming Unwillingness to Answer
Please list all the departments from which you purchased merchandise on
your most recent shopping trip to a department store.
(Incorrect)
In the list that follows, please check all the departments from which you
purchased merchandise on your most recent shopping trip to a department
store.
1. Women's dresses ____
2. Men's apparel ____
3. Children's apparel ____
4. Cosmetics ____
.
.
.
16. Jewelry ____
17. Other (please specify) ____ (Correct)
Choosing Question Wording – Define the
Issue
• Define the issue in terms of who, what, when, where, why, and way
(the six Ws). Who, what, when, and where are particularly important.
Which brand of shampoo do you use?
(Incorrect)
Which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home
during the last month?
In case of more than one brand, please list all the brands that apply.
(Correct)
Choosing Question Wording – Use Ordinary
Words
“Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate?”
(Incorrect)

“Do you think soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy
them?”
(Correct)
Choosing Question Wording – Use
Unambiguous Words
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Never
_____ Occasionally
_____ Sometimes
_____ Often
_____ Regularly
(Incorrect)
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Less than once
_____ 1 or 2 times
_____ 3 or 4 times
_____ More than 4 times (Correct)
 Choosing Question Wording – Avoid Leading
or Biasing Questions
• A leading question is one that clues the respondent to what the answer
should be, as in the following:
Do you think that patriotic Indians should buy imported automobiles when that would put
Indian labor out of work?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
(Incorrect)
Do you think that Indians should buy imported automobiles?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know (Correct)
Choosing Question Wording – Avoid Implicit
Alternatives
• An alternative that is not explicitly expressed in the options is an
implicit alternative.

1. Do you like to fly when traveling short distances?

(Incorrect)
2. Do you like to fly when traveling short distances, or would you
rather drive?
(Correct)
Choosing Question Wording – Avoid Implicit
Assumptions
• Questions should not be worded so that the answer is dependent
upon implicit assumptions about what will happen as a consequence.

1. Are you in favor of a balanced budget?

(Incorrect)
2. Are you in favor of a balanced budget if it would result in an
increase in the personal income tax?
(Correct)
Choosing Question Wording – Avoid
Generalizations and Estimates
• “What is the annual per capita expenditure on groceries in your
household?”
(Incorrect)
“What is the monthly (or weekly) expenditure on groceries in your
household?”
and
“How many members are there in your household?”
(Correct)
Type of Questions
Question Content

Open – ended Closed - ended

Dichotomous Multiple Scales

Responses
Questionnaire structure
• Instructions
• Opening questions
• Study questions
• Classification information
• Acknowledgement