UNIT Three

The Modern World Since 1500

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 3.1. The Renaissance: A Rebirth of Learning
Renaissance was a rebirth of learning.
It was literary and cultural movements from the
14th to 16th C.
First began in Italy and spread to Germany,
France, England and other parts of Europe.
Marked the transition from Medieval to Modern
It was the rediscovery of the Greco-Roman
civilization, neglected by the religious minded
Christian medieval world.
Emphasized on reason, questioning attitude and
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inquiry.
Renaissance thinkers paid greater attention to the
study of humanity started in the 14 th C. They
concerned not with religious matters, but with
everyday human problems.
Francesco Petrarch (1304-74) and Giovani
Boccaccio (1313-75) studied and rediscovered
classical writings. The former known for his poetry
and the later for his collection of 100 short stories
called the Decameron, published in 1353.
They insisted that the duty of intellectuals was to
concentrate on human problems by studying the
past lives.
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The Christian Humanists (Northern and western
European Renaissance scholars) sought to apply
humanistic methods to the study of Christianity i.e.
the careful study of the Christian text such as the
Bible.
Desiderius Ersamus of Netherlands (1466-1536)
and Thomas More of England (1476-1538) were
the leading Christian humanists.
Erasmus wrote a book called “The Praise of
Folly” in 1511, he ridiculed superstition, prejudice,
upper privileges and church abuses.
Wrote against narrow mindedness and intolerance.
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Encouraged people to think about reforms, the
necessity of justice and freedom.
Thomas More in his book, Utopia published in
1516, portrayed an ideal state free from war,
injustice, poverty and ignorance society.
Sculpture and Art
They portray nature and people realistically.
They designed buildings on a smaller scale to help
make people aware of their own power and dignity.

Giotto di Bondone of Florentine (1260-1337)

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portrayed nature realistically- lifelike figures
Sculptor Donatello (1386-1466) curved the statue
of Marry Magdalene and St. George.
Michelangelo (1475-1564)- an Italian painter,
architect and poet. He painted Moses in 1516 gives
an overwhelming impression of physical and
spiritual power.
Raphael (1483-1520) painted the Sistine
Madonna.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)- the ideal
Renaissance man- painter, sculptor, architect,
musician, engineer and scientists.
Painted the Last Supper in 1497 and Mona Lisa
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in 1503.
One of the most searching minds in all
history-made careful drawings of human
skeletons and muscles.
Literature
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) of Italy was
best known by his great epic poem “La
Divine Commedia- Divine Comedy” written
in 1308. he reflects the powerful interests in
all aspects of human life and behavior.
He established the use of Italian language in
7literature.
Nicolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) of Italy wrote a
book called “The Prince” describes ethics and
government. He states that “the end justifies the
means”.
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) of England-
was the greatest poet and play write of all time
such as Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Julius Caesar
and Macbeth.
Science
Developed the scientific method of observation
and experimentation by challenging the medieval
8 superstition and general acceptance of
Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) of Poland
disproved the Ptolemaic Theory- the earth is the
center of the Universe.
Promulgated the theory that the sun is the center of
our solar system and the earth and other planets are
revolving around the sun.
Galileo Galilee (1564-1642) of Italy propounded the
law of falling bodies and greatly improved the
telescope.
William Harvey (1578-1657) of England
demonstrated that blood circulates through the body.
Robert Boyle (1627-91) of England discovered the
9 law of gases that is fundamental to modern chemistry.
 3.2. Exploration: European Expansion Over
Seas
Factors Encouraging Overseas Voyages
 The Europeans demand to buy goods from the East.
 Gradually, the price of these goods increased
 The major over land trade route between Europe and the East controlled by the
Muslim Turks, began charging Europeans higher and higher prices for the Eastern
products.
 The Europeans wanted to by-pass the Muslims and find a direct sea route to the
Indies (East Asia).
 Tales of travelers also fascinated Europeans and their dramatic curiosity about the Far
East increased
 Marco Polo of Venetia told strange and exciting stories about the distant lands in
Asia.
 The Europeans were also eager to know about the Prester John, a rich Christian king
somewhere in Asia or Africa.

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Large scale exploration and discovery took place in the 15 th
and 16th C due to the following developments
The development of more efficient sailing ships, entirely
depend on wind. The sailing ships moved across the world
according to the wind direction.
The trade winds- moved across the Atlantic Ocean and back
The Monsoon winds- moved ships across the Indian Ocean
and back.
Availability of navigation compass such as the compass, the
quadrant , and the astrolabe.
The role of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (1394-
1460) and Queen Isabella of Spain (1451-1504) and encourage
exploration.
15th and 16th leading countries- Portugal and Spain
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17th and 18th C leading countries – Dutch, French and English.
 Prince Henry the Navigator
Wanted to expand Portugal’s trade along the African
coast
Hoped to find the source of gold
Devoted himself to training and equipping explorers
Brought together the ablest sea captains, map makers,
astronomers and mathematicians
Opened the Navigation school
Vasco da Gama (1469-1524)
Portuguese explorer and navigator, who was the first
person to reach India from Europe by a sea route.
Sailed to India and back and round the Cape route of
Africa and across the Indian Ocean to the East in
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 Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
Italian-born Spanish navigator who trying to sail round the
world to reach India, China and the East.
He had in fact reached not the East as he thought but the
Caribbean Islands and the American continents in 1492.
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
Portuguese-born Spanish explorer and navigator, leader of
the first expedition to circumnavigate, or sail completely
around, the world from 1519-22.
Sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the coast of Brazil with
241 men 5 ships.
Named the Pacific Ocean reached the Philippines, where he
was killed on 27 April, 1521.
13The Victoria, the surviving ship, finally reached Spain 6,
The European colonial empires in the New World were
“Settlement Colonies”- large number of the Europeans went
to settle and lived there permanently.
The settlement colonies were important to the economies of
the colonial powers as
●market for manufactured goods in Europe
● source of mines –gold and silver
●plantation agriculture –sugar cane and tobacco
produced by slave labour.
The slaves were imported from Africa in Trans-Atlantic
Slave Trade.
English colonies in the New World became populous
because England allowed religious minorities to settle there.
14Overseas colonies of England founded by private companies
France and Spain were not allowed the non Catholics to
go in the New World.
Consequences of Exploration and Discoveries
Colonial conquest.
Rapid growth of trade.
The Commercial Revolution that brought about great
changes - new business methods, an increase in prices
and growth of modern capitalism.
Spread of Christianity and Western ideas.
The growth of the slave trade.
Rise of mercantilism - a believe that a country would be
rich and strong if it exported more than it imported.

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The colonies served good for mercantilism because
●supply raw materials and slaves
●Closed markets for manufactured goods
● good ports or vital waterways
Colonial Rivalries and Wars
The Spanish claimed over islands of the Philippines in
honor of King Philip II brought disputed with Portugal.
The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494- was the so-called Line of
Demarcation which set the boundaries b/n Spain and
Portugal.
But, the Spanish conquest of Philippine Islands,
archipelago in 1542 marked the beginning of Spanish rule
over the Philippines centered at Manila for more than 300
years.
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By the 17th C, the Dutch and English compete for the control of
Asian trade from the Portuguese.
The Dutch controlled the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) while the
English dominated India.
The Dutch, French and English also took over Latin America, the
West Indies and the United States.
The English established the 13 colonies b/n 1603-1733.
The Dutch settled New Netherlands in 1424 but taken by English
in 1664.
The European colonists of the 17th C were also fought major wars.
The English and French fought frequent wars for predominance
on the European and North American continents
The King William’s War of 1689-97 also known as the War of the
League of Augsburg,
the Queen Ann’s War of 1702-13 or the War of Spanish
Succession
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King Georges War of 1744-40 or War of the Austrian
Succession.
The Seven Years War of 1754-63 or the French and Indian
War began in America and ended in Europe. It concluded a
global series of Wars from 1689-1763 b/n Britain and France
Britain became the lone European imperial power in North
America between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi
River since 1763.
British victory in the French India War gave an enlarged
mainland empire but brought new problems because
The war had been expensive
The acquisition of French and Spanish territory gave the
British new administrative tasks
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3.3. The English Bourgeoise Revolution
Background
The English Tudor dynasty came to an end in 1603
with the death of unmarried Queen Elizabeth I
(1558-1603).
The Scottish Stuart dynasty came to power led by
James I of England (James VI of Scotland).
England and Scotland were protestants but the later
were more Calvinist, Presbyterian Church.
The Act of Union of 1707- was the political unity of
England and Scotland with a single parliament and
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government.
The English monarchy under the Tudor dynasty
was strong but not absolute due to the ff reasons.
The king had no regular and professional army and
only a small bureaucracy of paid officials.
They needed the cooperation of the land owning
nobles, gentry and bourgeoisie to govern the
country effectively.
English economy was not yet well advanced.
The existence of a representative national
assembly- parliament.

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 The English Parliament
Approved all laws and taxation but called by the king.
Its meetings were at Westminster, outside London.
Had two houses/ assemblies:
The House of Lords: not elected and consisted of the
heads of noble families and archbishops and bishops
of the Church of England.
The House of Commons: were elected and represented
the people.
 M.P.s of the House of Commons were elected by
adult males undemocratically.
 Its elected members were from gentry, bourgeoisie
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merchants and lawyers.
 Charles I (1625-49)
 Serious conflict b/n the king and parliament was began.
 Co-operation b/n the king and ruling class break down.
 The disputes were about foreign policy, money and
religion.
 Failed extensive and unsuccessful wars against Spain
and France.
 Faced Financial difficulties.
 Collected money without parliament's approval.
 Growing suspicion in England that Charles and his
wife, Queen Henrietta Maria of French, were taking
England away from Protestantism and back to
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Catholicism.
But this was not true and Charles was not secret
Catholic.
He ruled England without a parliament and
continued to collect money illegally for eleven
years (1629-40).
Beginning of the Revolution
Began in Scotland because Charles imposed the
Church of England Prayer Book for Church
services in Scotland without consulting the Scots in
1637.
The Scots opposed due to nationalist reason and the

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Prayer Book really did look Catholic.
 The Short Parliament
Called by Charles to obtain money and to suppress the
rebellion in Scotland.
Its meeting was very short/brief (April-May 1640).
Parliament refused to approve any taxation.
The king quickly dissolved the parliament
The king continued to suppress the rebellion without
money but the government authority began to break
down in England and Scotland.
The Long Parliament
It met in November 1640 to 1653.
Its members were united against Charles and forced
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him to accept laws seriously limiting his powers.
Parliament itself was divided
Most of its members wanted to take away all
powers of the king and make him a puppet of the
Parliamentary leaders because
They could not trust the king
They feared his revenge against themselves.
Other parliament members were also feared that
political and religious crisis among the lower
classes was a growing danger.
The conservatives were also turned to the king and
opposed the wish of strict Calvinists in parliament
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to abolish archbishops and bishops and change the
 The king and the opposition in the parliament further
worsen following the Irish rebellion in which the former
wanted to suppress by the arm but refused by the later.
 The king attempted to arrest the leading members of the
parliamentary opposition led to the civil war
The First Civil War (1642-46)
 Fought between the king (supported by the Royalists) and
the parliament (got support from Scotland).
 The parliament also raised a centralized army called the
New Model Army commanded by Thomas Fairfax and
Oliver Cromwell.
 The parliament won victory because it has support of the
middle classes, merchants and puritans.
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 Consequences of the Civil War
 Firm political settlement set b/n the king, parliament and
the army.
 The negotiation was not successful.
 Radical political and religious ideas were emerged
The Leveller Movement: a mid 17th C English secular
political movement.
 Issued the abolition of corruption within the parliament
and judicial process, toleration of religious differences,
the transition of law into the common tongue, and
electoral redistribution of seats.
 Had strong support among small craftsmen, wage workers,
ordinary soldiers and junior officials of NMA
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 The Putney Debates of 1647
Made among the army.
Decided to fight for political and religious freedom
for the ordinary people.
Forced the army leadership to hold a political
decision with their representatives.
Ended without conclusions or agreements.
The Second Civil War (1648-49)
An invasion of England by the Scottish army to
support Charles.
It was also a Royalist insurrection in England.
28 The New Model Army quickly defeated the Scots

 The army decided to put an end to Charles and the
monarchy.
 Excluded from parliament all members of the House of
Commons who did not agree with the army’s programme.
The Rump- were remnant or left-overs.
 Members of the HC who remained.
 The army and the Rump publically beheaded Charles I in
January 1649.
Consequences of the Civil War
 Abolished the House of Lords.
 England became a republic called the Commonwealth
(1649-60).
 Cromwell smash the Leveller movement inside and
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outside the army.
 Cromwell showed little sympathy for the Levellers
 Its leaders were imprisoned in the Tower of London by
the Council of State namely: John Lilburne, William
Walwyn, Thomas Prince, and Richard Overton.
 He also attacked the mutineers in the army and
destroyed the Leveller’s support base in the NMA.
 This marked the defeat of the first secular democratic
movement in modern Europe.
The Long Parliament
 Ruled England from 1648-53 with the Rump.
 But the army and its leaders became dissatisfied with
the Rump.
 Cromwell dismissed the Rump and ended the LP in
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Oliver Cromwell (1653-58)
Governed England as a Lord Protector
Conquered Scotland and Ireland and made England
a feared military power in Europe.
Ruling classes wanted to the restoration of the
monarchy, more acceptable to more people.
General Mock, commanded a strong army decided
to support the restoration of the monarchy.
The Restoration of the Monarchy
Charles II began to ruled England in May 1660.
Brought back the monarchy, the House of Lords, the
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state Church of England and the traditional
Charles II ruled with parliament and with the
support of the nobility and gentry.
Had no legitimate children.
James II (1685-88)
He was Catholic but not interfere with the
Protestant state Church of England.
People suspected him that intended to undermine
the Church of England and establish an absolute
rule.
The Glorious Revolution of 1688
The bloodless change in England with William III
32 as king of England (1688-1702).
William of Orange was the leader of the Dutch
Republic and Mary’s (Jame’s Protestant daughter)
husband.
He was invited by a small ruling class to come to
England with an army.
He accepted this to bring England into his alliance
against Louis XIV of France.
He arrived in England with a Dutch army in
November 1688.
James II fled to France.
William became king of England in 1688.
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Consequences of the Glorious Revolution
The declaration of the Bill of Rights - assured the
people certain basic civil rights.
The Bill of Rights:
Stands with Magna Carta and the Petition of
Rights as the legal guarantees of English liberty.
Listed certain rights that were the true, ancient and
indubitable rights and liberties of the people.
Settled the succession to the throne.
Made it illegal for the king to keep standing army,
to levy taxes without parliament’s approval, or to
34 be a Roman Catholic.
 3.4. The American War of Independence
The American Revolution
The 13 British settlement and plantation colonies in
North America were extended from Canada in the
North to Florida in the South and from the Atlantic
Ocean inland to the Appalachian Mountains.
There was fast growing population due to marriage
at young age and immigration from Europe.
Its population were made up of
* Amerindian (Native American)
* European Settlers
35 * African Slaves
 Economy of the 13 Colonies
Expanded fast because of rising population and
export of plantation products to Europe.
Were farmers due to the existence of plentiful and
cheap land.
Had craftsmen but not industry because it was
discouraged by Britain, wanted the colonies for
markets of her own manufactures.
Had merchants and a professional bourgeois.
Had class differences with economic inequalities.
Britain imposed laws to regulate their trade and
36 economy, but ineffective since 1763.
 Politics of the 13 Colonies
Had much autonomy but ruled by the British
institutions and political ideas.
Had a governor appointed by the British
government.
Had an elected assembly, vote taxes for local
purposes and passed laws.
Voting to elected assemblies was not democratic,
by adult white males.
Run their affairs with not much interference form
Britain.
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The conflicts b/n Britain under King George III and the
13 colonies (Americans) grew strong in 1763 due to
* strict control of the colonies by Britain
* various measures taken by Britain angered them
(1763-65)
 The Proclamation of 1763 declared that the land lying
beyond the Appalachians and Great Lakes region closed
to the colonists.
 The British parliament restricted the trade b/n the
colonists and other countries.
 The Stamp Act imposed on news papers, wills, business
contracts and playing cards.
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 The Quartering Act- a law passing that the colonists must
provide housing for troops, sent to defend the colonies.
Reaction of the Colonists
 American patriots aroused public feelings against the
British- James Otis, Patrick Hennery, & Samuel Adams
The Boston Tea Party- an event in which the Boston
Americans dumped into the Boston Harbor the British
cargoes of tea on which they were expected to pay duty in
1773.
 They also agreed not to buy English goods.
 British responded to the colonists by adopt new measures
to restrict or punish them.

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 The First Continental Congress
 A body of delegates representing the colonists met at
Philadelphia from September to the end of October
1774.
 Debated the extent to which the colonies should
carry their resistance to Great Britain.
 Passed a resolution on October 14 called the
Declaration of Rights and Grievances.
 The stage was set for the outbreak of hostilities,
which began on April 19, 1775, A battle began when
the British troops exchanged fire in Lexington.
 The British soldiers and colonial militia fought at the
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Battles of Concord, Lexington and Bunker Hill.
The colonist now came to believe in the necessity
for independence since 1775.
It was mainly encouraged by the work of an
American Revolutionary and Patriot, Thomas
Paine who wrote a pamphlet entitled as “Common
Sense, The Rights of Man and The Age of Reason”
The Second Continental Congress
Assemble in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775.
Adopted a democratic document called “the
Declaration of Independence” on July 4, 1775.
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson (1743-1820),
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declared that the 13 colonies now became
 He also declared that the government were created to serve
the people, and could only act with consent of the people.
 He outlined that
 “All men are created equal, endowed certain unalienable
rights- Life, Liberty and Happiness”.
 “Government are just deriving powers from the consent of
the governed, the people.”
 “Whenever the government became destructive of these
rights, it is the right of the people to alter it and to institute
new government”.
 Listed the grievances against George III and concluded that
the colonists have the right to independence.

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Britain refused and the patriots continued the war
until 1783.
At the end the patriots were succeeded to gain
victory over Britain due to the ff factors.
The Geographic advantages: the distant ocean
made the moving and supplying of large British
armies difficult.
The Role of George Washington: his firmness
kept hope alive among his discourage officers and
men and his military skill.
French Aid: gave to the Patriots to embarrassed its

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age-old enemy, England.
 The Treaty of Alliance
Signed b/n France and America following the
victory of Saratoga, New York in 1778.
France provided money, weapons, soldiers and
warships.
They were also aided by Spain and Holland.
The Battle of Yorktown, Virginia: fought b/n
America forces (led by Lafayette and Washington
) and British forces led by Cornwallis.
concluded by the surrender of British troops on
October 19, 1781.
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 The Treaty of Paris
Signed in 1783.
USA gained control of the land from the Atlantic to
the Mississippi and Maine to Georgia.
Spain ruled Florida and west Mississippi.
Great Britain ruled Canada.
The new American nation faced the problem of
*heavy loss of trade
* business depression
* lack of strong national government

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 The Constitutional Convention of 1787
Meeting during the summer of 1787 at which
delegates from 12 states wrote the Constitution of
the United States.
Established a strong central government with
George Washington as the first US president.
Left many powers to the individual states but
authorized the new central government
* to levy and collect taxes
* to raise and maintain an army and navy.
* to declare war and make treaties.
46 * to regulate trade b/n states and with foreign
 The major results of the American War of
Independence were
It created a new nation state.
It was one of the immediate causes of the French
Revolution of 1789.
It helped the liberation of Latin America from
Spanish and Portuguese colonialism.

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 3.5. The French Bourgeois Revolution
The Old Regime
From the mid-17th C to 1789.
Absolute monarch governmnt with no constitution
Divided the society into three estates/social groups
The 1st Estate: Royal Family and Catholic clergey
The 2nd Estate: the nobility
The 3rd Estate: the bourgeiose, petty bourgeois, wage
workers and peasants.
Provided rights for the clergy and the nobility- paid
less taxes
Oppresed the peasants- paid more taxes- feudal dues
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 The growing criticisms and discontents among the
3rd estates led to the outbreak of the revolution.
Immediate Causes of the French Revolution
France’s participation in the American War of
Independence from1778-83.
This brought about two developments
* introduction of the ideas of liberty among
the French people
* It was very expensive war and resulted in
financial crisis in France. By 1788, there was no
more money in the Treasury of France government.
49
 The Estates-General
It was the national representative assembly of
France.
Consisted of representatives elected from the three
estates.
It had not meeting for 175 years (1614-1789).
Met in Versailles in 1789 because the states faced
severe economic crisis.
The poor peasants of France were suffered a lot due
to
* food scarcity
50
* high price
King Louis XVI (1774-93) was weak and
incompetent.
Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis, was unpopular
because she was:
* extravagant spending.
* A foreigner, Austrian princess.
The National Assembly
Formed by the representative of the 3 rd estates in
the meeting of May 1789.
Decided to form a constitution alone.
Its members took an oath to give a proper
51 constitution for France was called The Tennis
 The Storming of the Bastille
Bastille was a royal prison, fortress and arsenal
in the middle of Paris.
It was considered as a symbol of tyranny and
oppression.
Destroyed by the ordinary people (peasants,
wage workers and craftsmen) of Paris on 14
July, 1789.
Marked the end of absolute monarchy in
France.

52
Celebrated as a national holyday by the French
 Reforms of the National Assembly
 By the August Day of 1789:
 Ended the old regime in France
 Declared the abolition of feudal dues and the church tax, the
tithe.
 Abolished special privileges- payment of feudal dues and
church tithes by peasants, tax exemptions of the privileged
classes, all class distinctions and guild restrictions on trade and
manufacturing.
 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen stated that:
* Men are born free with rights to liberty, property,
security.
* All citizens are entitled to a voice in making the
nations laws.
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* Expressed freedom of speech, press and religion
By the Act of National Assembly in 1790,
 All lands of the Catholic Church was nationalized
and sold to those who had financial capacity.
 It also voted to put the Catholic Church in France
under the control of the state.
 The Pope and the Clergy opposed this and this led
to the quarrel b/n the revolutionaries and the
Church.
King Louis XVI and his family fled from Paris to
join the counter-revolutionaries.
However, he was caught at Varennes and returned
54
to Paris.
The National Guard: was the bourgeoisie security
force who suppressed a mass demonstration in
Paris who favored a republic.
The 1791 Constitution of France
Made France a constitutional monarchy.
Contradicted the principles of the Declaration of
Right of Man and Citizen in August1789
Divided the French society as:
Active Citizens: had enough property, full political
rights of voting and being elected.
Passive Citizens: did not have full political rights.
Women denied all political rights.
55
 The bourgeoisie did not give political rights to the poor
because of the fear that it would endanger the guarantee
of private property.
 The constitution also arranged the election of a new
Legislative Assembly in October 1791.
The Revolutionary War of 1792
 Fought b/n France against Austria and Prussia.
 France wanted to made the revolution more extreme while
the European monarchies disliked the revolution and
wanted to crush it.
 The people of Paris stand against the royal family, overthrow the
monarchy and rejected the constitution of 1791.
 The French army won an important victory at the Battle of Valmy in

56
September 1792.
 The Convention
It was the new assembly which replaced the
Legislative Assembly.
Declared France as a republic in place of the
monarchy in September 1792.
Executed king Louis XVI in public by the guillotine
in Jan. 1793 while Marie Antoinette in Oct. 1793.
Two rival political parties were emerged in the
convention.
The Girondins: were moderates and represented the
big bourgeoisie.
The Jacobins: were radicals and represented the
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middle and petty bourgeoisie.
In 1793, the revolution and France faced the ff
serious danger:
Economic problems due to war and internal stability.
Counter-revolutionaries in France
Invasion by the armies of the European monarchies
The Jacobins were minority in the convention but
supported by the people of Paris due to their radical
idea to save the country.
The Jacobins Rule (June 1793-July 1794)
Were led by Maximillien Robespierre.
Ruled France through a 12-man Committee of
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Public Safety.
Introduced a very democratic constitution in June
1793.
Introduced food rationing
Enforced the Laws of the Maximum to control
prices and wages.
Raised mass armies by conscription to face the
external invasions.
Marked as the height of the French Revolution and
its bloodiest stage.
Launched the Reign of Terror aimed to crush
counter-revolution i.e. the execution of individuals
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convicted of being “enemies of the people”.
The most notable achievement of the Reign of
Terror was to save the revolutionary government
from military defeat.
The Jacobins gradually lost popular support due to
their brutal measure to suppress domestic
oppositions.
They failed to keep discipline among themselves
and the non-Jacobin majority in the convention
turned against them.
The Convention voted the arrest of Robespierre
and other leaders and sent them to the guillotine on
July 27-28, 1794.
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 The Directory (Oct. 1795-Nov. 1799)
Established in 1795 in accordance with the
constitution promulgated by the Convention -
restricted political rights than the 1791.
Unable to give France a stable, conservative
bourgeoisie republic.
It was corrupt, weak and unpopular regime.
Overthrow by Napoleon Bonaparte through a
military coup d'état in 1799.
Significance of the French Revolution
Introduced democratic ideals to France- Liberty,
Equality and Fraternity.
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Ended supreme rule by French kings and
strengthened the middle class.
Abolished serfdom, slavery, inherited privileges and
judicial torture.
Created a long-lasting foundation for a unified state,
a strong central government, and free society.
Intensified the spirit of Nationalism.
Adopted a national anthem called Marseillaise.
Proclaimed July 14, Bastille Day, as a national
holyday.
Expansion of state-controlled education for
preserving the nation’s ideas.
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Set a precedence for future generation to struggle
against all forms of domination and internal tyranny.
Paved the way for the growth democratic
government in the world.

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 3.6. The Industrial Revolution
Although thee Industrial Revolution evolved over
a long period of time, historians generally agree
that it began in Britain sometimes after 1750.
By 1850, the IR had made Great Britain the
wealthiest country in the world.
It had also spread to the European continent and
the New World.
USA was the first industrialized non-European
country.
Origins
A number of factors or conditions coalesced in
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The Agricultural Revolution of the 18th C- led to a
significant increase in food production and feed more
people at lower prices giving them the potential to
purchase manufactured goods.
 The rapid population growth also provided a pool of
surplus labor for the new factories of the emerging
British industry.
The Supply of Capital- Britain had a ready supply
of capital for investment, possessed an effective
central bank and well-developed flexible credit
facilities.
Early Industrial Entrepreneurs- Britain had a fair
65 number of individuals who were interested in making
Mineral resources- Britain had ample supplies of
important mineral resources-coal and iron ore-
needed in the manufacturing process.
 Britain was also made and relatively short distances
made transportation nonproblematic.
Role of Government- Britain’s government also
contributed to the favorable business climate by
providing a stable government and passing laws
that protected private property.
Markets- a supply of markets gave British
industrialists a ready outlet for their manufactured
goods.
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 Britain was also possessed a well developed merchant
marine that was able to transport goods anywhere in the
world.
 The colonies were also serve as a supply of raw materials
essential to industry.
Definitions of the term Industrial Revolution
It was widespread replacement of manual labor by
machines
It was the result of many fundamental, interrelated changes
that transformed agricultural economies into industrial
ones.
The most immediate changes were in the nature of
production: what was produced, as well as where and how.
67 Goods that had traditionally been made in the home or in

Industrial Revolution was the result of
industriousness-derived from “industry” meaning
the quality of regularly working hard.
The skilled craftsmen who developed the needed
machines were called industrious-developed the
habit of working hard.
The Industrial Revolution is called a revolution
because it changed society both significantly and
rapidly.
The Industrial Revolution brought a shift from the
agricultural societies created during the Neolithic
Revolution to modern industrial societies.
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 Technological Changes
The Cotton industry: the production of cheap cotton
goods using the traditional methods of cottage
industry.
James Hargreaves’s Spinning Jenny invented in
1768 enabled spinners to produce yarn in greater
quantities.
Richard Arkwright’s water frame spinning
machine, powered by water or horse, and Samuel
Crompton’s so-called mule increased yarn production
even more.
Edmund Cartwright's power loom, invented in 1787,
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allowed the weaving of cloth to catch up with the
At first, in the Industrial Revolution more water
power was used and it was used better.
The Steam Engine: revolutionized the production of
cotton goods and allowed the factory system to
spread to other areas of production.
 It ensured the triumph of the Industrial Revolution.
 Steam power turned water into steam by burning
coal.
 It was first invented by Thomas Savery (1698) and
Thomas Newcomer (1712)- used for pumping
water, but could only raise water about 6 m (20 ft)
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without using pressures.
James Watt (1736-1819): Scottish inventor and
mechanical engineer, renowned for his
improvements of the steam engine.
Created an engine powered by steam that could
pump water from mines three times as quickly as
previous engines in 1782.
Steam power could now be applied to spinning and
weaving cotton.
The development of steam engine also led to a
radical transformation of transport- steam boat on
rivers, steam ship at sea and steam locomotive on
land.
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Richard Trevithick (1804) pioneered the first
steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line
in southern Wales.
George Stephenson improved the locomotives for
the first modern railways in Britain.
The first railways were built b/n Stockton and
Darlington in 1825 and the Liverpool and
Manchester in 1830.
Railways in Britain
Connected major places and provided fast, reliable,
cheap transport for people by 1850.
Owned by big share companies not by individuals
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Connected major places and provided fast, reliable,
cheap transport for people by 1850.
Owned by big share companies not by individuals
because it was expensive to build and equip.
The Industrial Factory: became the chief means of
organizing labor for the new machines, operated by
steam power.
Hired workers who no longer owned the means of
production but were paid wages to run the
machines.
Capitalists owned factory buildings, machines,

73
steam engine, raw materials and finished products.
They also faced a formidable task- create a system of
time-work discipline, accustom employees to
working regular and unvarying hours.
Produced faster at cheaper coast, more control over
their workers and more profit.
Formation of corporations owned by share
stockholders greatly improved manufacturing
methods.
Show great advancement in producing metal by
using coke as the fuel and machines to shape it.
The most important transformed industries b/n 1750
and 1850 were- cotton textiles, iron, mechanical
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engineering, chemical manufacture and transport.
 Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
Growth of population due to declining mortality.
Growth of cities- became place for manufacturing
and industry and home for large number of people.
Miserable living conditions for urban inhabitants-
housing problem, poor sanitation,
Harsh working conditions for women's and
children in the factories and coal mines for log
working hour
The formation of new social classes: the
Bourgeoisie (owners of the factory) and the
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working classes who worked in the factory.
 The Development of Socialist Thought and Action
Industrialism faced criticism from writers and
reformers in the 19th C due to hardship and suffering
of the working class.
The Utopian Socialism: Robert Owen (British factory
owner) and Charles Fourier of France established
short lived cooperative settlements.
Utopia is an ideal society created by Thomas More
that provides equality and justice for its members.
Scientific Socialism: is the ideology of a German
economist and social philosopher Karl Marx (1818-
83).
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 Wrote a book named the Communist Manifesto
(1848) with his friend, Friedrich Engels.
 Taught that capitalism would be replaced by
socialism- the formation of a society based on
common ownership of the means of production,
not on economic privileged.
Several socialist political parties were formed in
Europe and North America in the late 19 th C.
They won control of the government in several
countries b/n 1890 and 1914.
International socialist movement show collapse

77
since WWI.
 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution and Its Impact
Social Darwinism: was a philosophy of compete for
survival - superior individuals, social groups and
races become powerful and wealthy.
 Developed by a British naturalist called Charles R.
Darwin.
 A struggle for existence in which natural selection
results in “survival of the fittest”- organisms best
suited to their environment are the ones most likely
to survive and produce organisms like themselves.
 Applies the idea of natural selection to society-
differences in achievement and wealth among people.

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 Individuals or groups must compete with one another to
survive.
 Social Darwinism was an important social theory first
proposed by a British Philosopher, Herbert Spencer.
 It became popular in the USA by an American sociologist
called William Graham Sumner.
 The struggle for survival among organisms applied to the
struggle for power among the social class by a German
philosopher Karl Marx.
 Darwin promote the belief that people in a society must
compete for survival.
 Lost much of its influence by early 1900s and but
advocated by some scientist still today.
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