ECUSTA- HLI

Course Name: Migration, Refugee and Social

Work Practice
Course Code: BSWC 3051
Course Cr. Hr. /ECTS: 3/5
Instructor: Amha Neway
Email: amishneway@gmail.com
1. Global Migration
Introductory Points on Migration
• Migration is a social process and as old as the history of
mankind
• Migration is an ongoing process among human beings
• Migration is a major factor in social change and development
• The evolution of human society and rise of civilization is
highly associated with the movement of people or migration
• Early ancestors such as hunters and gatherers migrated from
place to place. People migrated from place to place in search
of pastures for their domestic animals. These features still
survive among the current pastoralists in Asia, Africa and
Latin America.
• During the agricultural stage of the human history, migration
continued in search of fertile lands and river basins and so on.
Introductory…
• The movement of people also continued due to frequent
military conflicts, wars and invasions.
• People would migrate on the orders of emperors or rulers who
wished to set up a new capital (which might be equivalent to
forced migration).
• Migration also continued as groups of people moved for trade,
commerce and land grants, and settled down at various places.
• Migration is not always a group phenomenon it is also an
individual phenomenon. Individuals move from villages to
cities.
• With the advent of modern means of communication, transport
and information channels, people are much more mobile than
ever before.
The general concept of migration
• Migration refers to a change of usual place of dwelling where it
can be across city, regional state or international boundary lines
(Arsdol, Guarin & Lam, 2003).
• The term migration’ should refer to the process of movement of
persons including the movement of refugees, displaced persons,
uprooted people as well as economic migrants for a certain
minimum time (UNESCO, 2010).
• The term international migration referring to the movement of
people from one place to another passing international boundary
lines, involves both immigration and emigration.
• While emigration is the movement ‘from’ a country, immigration is
a movement ‘to’ a country (“Immigration and Emigration”, 2010).
Migrant
• The term migrant can be taken as "any person who lives
temporarily or permanently in a country where he or she was
not born, and has acquired some significant social ties to this
country" (UNESCO’s, 2010)
• The term ‘migrant’ as per article 1.1 (a) of the IOM
constitution (1951) is referred as “to be understood as
covering all cases where the decision to migrate is taken freely
by the individual concerned, for reasons of 'personal
convenience' and without intervention of an external
compelling factor."
• From this definition, one can understand that the term
–‘migrant’– does not refer to refugees, displaced persons, or
other forced people who are constrained to leave their country
of origin but to those who make free choice to leave even
though they may be extremely pushed by certain situations
(UNESCO, 2010).
Diaspora
• In relation to international migration, the term Diaspora
also comes to mind.
• The term Diaspora came from the history of the Jewish
society used to denote the Jewish communities living
outside the Holy Land.
• It was originally used to designate the dispersal of the
Jews at the time of the destruction of the first Temple (586
B.C.) and the forced exile to Babylonia (“Definition of
Diaspora”, 2007).
• The Diaspora became a permanent feature of Jewish life;
by A.D.
• 70 Jewish communities existed in Babylonia, Syria, Egypt,
Cyrene, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome.
Diaspora
• In modern times, Jews have migrated to the Americas, South
Africa, and Australia (“Definition of Diaspora”, 2007).
• Despite the creation of the state of Israel, the vast majority of
the Jewish people remain in the Diaspora, notably in North
America, Russia, and Ukraine (Mohan & Zach-Williams, 2002).
• Yet, since the middle of the 18th Century, the term Diaspora has
also been applied to other peoples, with large numbers living
outside their long-established homelands, even if their situation
is different from the above cited populations (“Definition of
Diaspora”, 2007).
• The general definition of Diaspora as stated in the Merriam-
Webster dictionary (2008) is: “the movement, migration, or
scattering of a people away from an established or ancestral
homeland”.
 Diaspora
• Some scholars share this definition while others claim that this
definition does not sufficiently describe members of the Diaspora.
• According to Riggs (2000), the term Diaspora should be defined as:
• “any community of individuals living outside their homeland
who identify themselves in some way with the state or
peoples of that homeland. Any such community is merely a
fuzzy set of individuals whose members (diasporans) act
individually to express their identities and, more
significantly, they may organize themselves in various ways
to enhance their influence or achieve their goals”.
• Dispersions- these are communities who for any reason have fled or
been driven from their homelands.
 This refers to scattering or spreading of people.
 This is the spatial or geographic property of being scattered
about over a range, area, or volume.
Trends of migration

• Despite the ongoing effects of the global economic crisis, the

total number of migrants worldwide has not fallen in recent
years.
• Migratory flows to developed countries somewhat slowed down
during and immediately following the crisis – for example,
in the United States of America, the number of foreigners
entering the country dropped from 1,130,818 in 2009 to
1,042,625 in 2010;
in the United Kingdom, the number dropped from 505,000
in 2008 to 470,000 in 2009;
in Spain, it dropped from 692,228 in 2008 to 469,342 in
2009;
in Sweden, from 83,763 in 2009 to 79,036 in 2010; and,
in New Zealand, from 63,910 in 2008 to 57,618 in 2010
(UNDESA, forthcoming).
Trends…
• However, there were no staggering reversals in the patterns of
movement, and thus, the global stock of migrants that had built
up over the course of several decades was hardly affected.
• In 2010, the total number of international migrants in the
world was estimated at 214 million people – up from 191
million in 2005 (UNDESA, 2009). It grew to 281 million in
2020. It means 3.6% of the world population lived outside their
country of origin.
• Given that the estimated number of internal migrants is 740
million (UNDP, 2009), around a billion people (roughly one in
seven of the world’s population) are migrants.
• Additionally, underlying this picture of general stability, were a
number of specific developments that were evident during
2010/2011 (World migration report, 2011)
Pattern of migration

• In the 1940s and 195Os, the major migrant streams were

Europeans to North America and the Antipodes, and
Jews to Israel while in the 1960s, people migrated highly
to the other developed nations also who were in need of
labor (Whitwell, 2002).
 These migrants came looking for better living standards and
work opportunities.
 Migration to these countries involved lasting settlement
including most legal rights of citizens, entailing the right to
work and live.
• In the 1970s and 198Os, family reunification, contract
labor, and intra-regional and refugee movements
typified the major trends in international migration
(Whitwell, 2002).
 Many of the migrants are distinguished to be either skilled
Pattern…
• As international migration continues, the pattern
has now become from less developed to the
industrialized countries, while flows are also taking
place between developing countries.
• In addition, more countries are senders or
receivers of international migration than in the past.
• This may be attributed to the improvements in
international communication resulting from
globalization (Silj, 2001).
• Thus, the level of International migration has grown
being a significant part of social change globally.
Types of international migration

• Most countries have their own ways of labeling migrants.

• The ways through which international migration can be
categorized as motives and legal status (UNESCO, 2010).
• The motives may include the categories of;
 economic,
 family reunion, and
 refugees
• The legal status include;
 irregular migration,
 controlled emigration/immigration, and
 free emigration/immigration (UNESCO, 2010).
Types
• According to a study conducted by Adamnesh (2006), the
categories of migrants include:
 Settlers - People, the majority of whom are joining close
family members, with a purpose of residing lastingly in
the country of destination; mostly, though not always,
the western countries.
 Contract workers - People, like seasonal workers or
others who will be on longer-term contracts, of a year or
more, accepted to other countries for a definite period in
accordance with the duration of their contract on.
 Professionals – Those who are transferred from one
country to another being staff members of transnational
corporations. This category is likely to involve fairly
small numbers when compared to the others.
Types…
 Unauthorized workers – Groups, at times referred as
‘undocumented’ or ‘illegal immigrants’ that are considerable in
number in most immigration countries. Some of these
unauthorized workers enter the countries through smuggling while
others are overstaying their visas, or are working on tourist visas.
 Asylum seekers and refugees - Runaways who chose to migrate in
order to avoid any hazards or risks; they are recognized as
'refugees' if the destination country accepted their request for
asylum.
 Being a refugee is not a matter of personal choice but of
governmental decision in accordance with legal guidelines.
Nonetheless, in some cases of mass journey i.e., when
significant numbers of people flee across a border they simply
are acknowledged as refugees without going through the
individual process (Portes and Ruben, 1996: 23 cited in
Adamnesh, 2006)
 Types…
• Categorization of migrants is based on two forms: motives and legal status.
As stated by UNESCO (2010), the distinction is made as:
 Temporary labor migrants: these are people who move to another country
for a certain period of time mostly for employment and support their home.
 Highly skilled and business migrants: persons who are professional
qualified for professional jobs such as managers, executives, professionals,
technicians or similar, who process their movement through international
organizations, trans-national corporations and who are looking for limited
opportunities of employment that require high skills. These types of
migrants are often welcomed in the host country and are most of the times
encouraged by most countries.
 Irregular migrants: migrants who are undocumented / illegal who are in
the host countries without the legal permits.
 Forced migration: refugees and asylum seekers are included in this
category along with those who migrate to a destination because of external
factors such as environmental disasters and others. In a way this type of
migration is similar to displacement (Stalker, 2005; UNESCO, 2010).
2. Theories of Migration
 Explanatory theories
• Explanatory theories have been developed to explain the inception,
continuance, and choice of migration flows, and the socio-economic and
cultural integration of migrants in the host countries.
• These theories are;
 macro-theories; explaining migration in terms of sending and
receiving countries – push and pull factors;
 meso-theories; explaining migration in terms of households, and
networks; and
 micro-theories; explaining migration in terms of individuals, their
background and reasons (Nwajiuba, 2005; Gubhaju & De Jong,
2009; ).
• Different authors have said much about these theories in an attempt to
explain drives of migration and integration of migrants in the receiving
countries.
• Yet, there is no specific cause to migration or that explains the aftermath
that applies across the world as the subject matter is hard to define, difficult
to measure, multifaceted and multiform, and thus resistant to theory-
 Macro-level theories

• The macro-theories are mainly based on political, economic, cultural

and demographic structures pertaining to the sending and receiving
countries (Leon-Ledesma & Piracha, 2001).
• Demographic and economic explanations were the dominant
theories that revolved around the concept of migration for a while until
the 1970’s (Tasse, 2007).
• These theories are based on the push and pull approach where
migrants would be pushed away (push) from poor countries and that
richer countries attract those from poor countries (pull) (Tasse, 2007;
Shuerkens, 2005; IOM, 2003; Leon-Ledesma & Piracha, 2001;
Seferagic, 1977).
• Push factors include economic situations where there is
unemployment, low salaries and low per capita income at the home
country while pull factors include favourable labour market situations
and migration policies of the receiving countries, though currently are
changing over from open to restrictive, (Nwajiuba, 2005; Tasse, 2007;
Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009; Leon-Ledesma & Piracha, 2001).
1. Dual labor market theory
• The theory argues that people move from traditional and
underdeveloped areas to more developed areas where
they get good economic return
• Both the modern and the traditional sectors benefit
where, for;
 the modern sector rate of wage decreases and
productivity increases
 the traditional sector gains higher demand from the
modern
• The theory fails to recognize the over-crowdedness of
the receiving countries and the manpower loss of the
sending countries.
2. Neo-classical macro economic theory

• According to this theory, the wage differential between sending

and receiving countries is one explanation for migration
(Stalker, 2005; Shuerkens, 2005; Tasse, 2007).
• In other words migration occurs where situations push labour to
where jobs, wages and other economic factors are most
advantageous (Massey et al, 1993; IOM, 2003) where
differentials on such factors is important for migration flows.
• Therefore as per this theory, labour movement will come to an
end when wage becomes equal between receiving and sending
countries.
• Nevertheless, this theory focuses solely on wage differential as
the determinant factors of people’s movement while it is the
case that it is the well to do, upper and middle class, who are
seen to migrate to the developed countries more than those
belonging to the lower class or the poor (Stalker, 2005; Tasse,
2007; Shuerkens, 2005).
Dependency theory
• Dependency theory is also another explanation developed
for migration.
• According to this theory, migration is the result of the
existence of uneven dependency relationship in which the
industrialized centres dominate the agricultural sector
(Massey et al, 1993).
• The big cities are created by the exploitation of the
periphery which positively affected cities development.
• This results from colonial and neo-colonial political and
economic relationships between the capitalized countries
and their peripheries (Mahmud, Sabur & Tamanna, 2009).
• As a result, people migrate from less developed to the
more developed sectors.
Political causality theory

• Political instability, high level of violence,

absence of democracy and other components
of political insecurity are some of the factors
explaining migration (Leon-Ledesma &
Piracha, 2001; Tasse, 2007).
Meso-level theories of migration

• The emphasis of the meso-level theories on

migration is the ties that people have with others in
terms of networks and familial relationship
(Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009; Tasse, 2007).
• In this case, old ties to the home country may be
maintained or new ties may be formed after the
migration takes place that can be taken as resources
– social capital (Ammasari & Black, 2001).
• The social capital will bring access to other
resources such as information, sharing the assets of
others etc.
1. Theory of the new economy of migration
• It recognizes the function of the family in the decision making
process of the migration while at the same time referring the
causing factors of migration from the sending countries’ viewpoint
(Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009; IOM, 2003; Tasse, 2007).
• Here the emphasis is on the diversification of income rather than
differentials of wage. Moreover, it gives importance to the
guarantee of survival in time of hardships than on the income
differential where risk of new migrants will be minimized by their
family members who already have settled in the host countries
(Tasse, 2007).
• Based on this theory, Gubhaju & De Jong (2009) stated that
resulting from the shifts of the decision making from the individual
to the households, the individual is motivated to migrate not only
to achieve his/her own targets but also for the survival of the
home/family.
2. Theory of migration networks
• A network is ‘a composite of interpersonal
relations in which migrants interact with their
family, friends or compatriots who stayed behind
in their country of origin’ (IOM, 2003).
• It helps migrants get access to resources in the
host countries such as information, financial
assistance and advice on getting jobs (Tasse,
2007).
• Network gives a chance to encounter various
occasions to migrants as it is expanded and
complex (Portes, 1995 in Adamnesh 2006).
Micro-level theories of migration
• Unlike the new economy theory, the neo classical micro
economic theory stipulates that the decision to migrate
at the end lies on the full autonomy of the individual
(Massey et al, 1993; Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009).
• Whether the family is involved or the macro-level factors
are taken into account, the individual’s free choice of
migration is the focus of micro-level theories (Nwajiuba,
2005; Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009; Chiswick, 1999).
• According to the neo-classical micro economic theory, the
individual decides to migrate computing the profits that
are available in the host countries with respect to those in
the home countries (Massey et al, 1993; Van Dalen et al,
2005; Tasse, 2007).
 Micro…
• The theory behind emigration intentions is that an individual makes a
decision to migrate when the expected net benefits in the host country
are higher than what he/she is earning and the probable earnings in the
home country (Mahmud et al, 2009; Van Dalen et al, 2005).
• Yet, the cost associated with migration like financial and emotional
costs (leaving family behind, attachment to home, etc) should also be
subtracted from the expected benefits in the host country.
• It is only when the net benefit is higher that a person will migrate (Van
Dalen et al, 2005). However, the shortcoming of this analysis is that it
does not consider how the expectations of the migrant are formed,
the quality of information on which the expectations are based, and
the self-selection criteria in forming their intentions (Gubhaju & De
Jong, 2009; Van Dalen et al, 2005; Chiswick, 1999)
• Overall, the theories suggest that people move in search of betterment
of their life situations in the home countries economically, politically,
culturally, and demographically (Shuerkens, 2005; IOM, 2003).
Common grounds of the three levels
• All the three levels share common grounds as they are not
clearly distinguishable and with specifically set differences
and divergent analysis (Massey et al, 1993).
• The meso-level theories, as integrative approaches, apply as
a link to the micro-level and macro-level theories (Mahmud
et al, 2009).
• Yet the distinction opens a room for discussion of the
dimensions and dynamics of international migration, and
has possible implication on policy formulation (Massey et al,
1993).
• However, though it is methodically suitable, it may be
theoretically and practically confusing; thus clarifying the
underlying assumptions opens the door for more work
(Shuerkens, 2005; Massey et al, 1993).
Common ground…
• Return motives are related to social, economic, family, and political
reasons.
• Unfavorable and unexpected condition in the host country and an
aspiration to enjoy better social as well as economic status in the
home county after accumulating sufficient funds are also important
determinants of return (Ammassari and Black (IOM), 2001).
• In addition, strong family ties and wish to join friends and family
are important factors motivating migrants to return. But often most
importantly the deciding factor will be the situation in the home
country.
• If the economic, social and political position improves then migrants
will be motivated to return.
• The other significant factor explaining return migration is age;
referred as return of retirement.
Reasons and Consequences of Migration

• Migration has an impact both on home and host countries or both

sending and receiving countries.
• History suggests that immigration is not economically damaging
(Adamnesh, 2006).
• A strengthening argument for this fact is that the world's
remaining superpower, the United State is populated almost
entirely by immigrants and their descendants become richer and
richer (Stalker, 2005).
• Other high immigration countries are also among the most
developed and the wealthiest such as the United Kingdom
(Drinkwater et al, 2008).
• Though this does not necessarily mean that immigration caused
the increase in wealth, these countries have used immigrants’
labor to become richer (Mahmud et al, 2009; Tasse, 2007).
Consequences…
• At the other end, many more young people in the
richer countries now go to college or university and
are less interested in manual work particularly in
industries such as construction which is creating labor
shortages (Silj, 2001).
• Immigrant workers can fill these gaps, not only by
meeting immediate needs, smoothing out the peaks
and ditches, but also by releasing local people to do
other work (Adamnesh, 2006).
• The clearest example of this is using immigrants as
nannies so that mothers, can go out to work as high-
powered executives.
Benefits of migration
• A potential benefit of migration for the sending
countries might be to ease population pressures and
reduce unemployment (IOM, 2003; Tasse, 2007;
Adamnesh, 2006).
 This statement is supported by Stalker (2005) taking Mexico
as an example where of the 108 million people alive today
who were born in Mexico around 8 million now live in the
United States. Though only to a slight extent, this has an
effect on population reduce of the country’s annual range
from 1.8% to 1.5% (Stalker, 2005).
• In addition, though emigration would not necessarily
relieve unemployment or underemployment directly,
some portion of population’s departure should open up
some opportunities for others (Seferagic, 1977; Stalker,
2005).
Benefits…
• On the other hand, the other side of this argument can
be stipulated as ‘the fact that the most qualified and
potential entrepreneurs leave the country may also
result in unemployment as when they leave their
businesses the people who were working for them will
stay out of jobs (Adamnesh, 2006).
• Yet, employment problems in developing countries are
not going to be solved by emigration.
• Just as in the receiving countries, the balance between
the number of jobs and the number of workers
depends more on the efficiency of the economy in
creating the right kind of opportunities.
Cost and benefit of migration
• Emigration can also cost poor countries some of their
most valuable people; brain drain (Van Dalen et al, 2005;
Skeldon, 2008; Turshen, 2007; Borjas & Bratsberg, 1996).
• The thousands of dollars spent to educate a doctor or an
engineer disappear when they take their skills abroad
(Bhorat, Meyer & Mlatsheni 2002; Bathseba, 2007).
• On the other hand, the main advantage of emigration for
the sending countries is that emigrants send much of their
earnings home in the form of 'remittances'; providing
much needed foreign exchange (Johnson & Stoll, 2008;
Mohan & Zach-Williams, 2002; SELA, 2004).
• However, this may only be true only in some cases where
most migrants may not have that much of an earning to be
sent home after their own expenses.
Cost…
• Usually migrants think that it would be most favourable
for them to return after they have accumulated capital;
both human and physical (Dustmann, 2008; Bubba, 2007).
• This may be due to the fact that the returns to that much
of a capital would be higher in their home country,
especially if the home country is one of the developing
countries.
• Hence, as the purchasing power of their savings potential
of immigrants increase, they become more likely to invest
in their home country more than most locals (Rodriguez
& Egea, 2006; Ganga, 2006; Ammassari & Black, 2001).
• In addition to the financial transfer, there will also be a
human capital transfer as those educated abroad will share
their knowledge in their home country upon their return
(Seferagic, 1977).
Consequence…
• The other dichotomy of migration is that international
migration is creating new social spaces (Adamnesh, 2006).
• Though overseas Diasporas are scattered in communities all
over the world, nowadays, with cheaper transport and
communications, it is easier for these people to stay in close
touch and to form more coherent 'transnational communities'
(Stalker, 2005).
• If the source and destination countries are close, migrants can
travel regularly back and forth. This kind of circular migration
is very common between Mexico and the United States, for
example, and between countries in West Africa (Stalker, 2005).
• This shows that migrants have been able to take full advantage
of the advances in telecommunications; phone and email to
keep in touch with their home communities.
Consequence…
• Dimensions of international migration are multiple.
• The dimensions are inter-related and can be stated as
consequences resulting from the concept of international
migration.
• The context of the issues related to the consequences of
international migration revolves around lots of issues that
include:
 brain drain and brain gain;
 family;
 gender;
 globalization;
 integration;
 return;
 role in development;
3. Globalization and Migration
Globalization
• Questions for group discussions
1. What is globalization? Discuss its nature and dimensions?
2. What are the impacts of globalization?
3. What are the links between globalization and migration?
Discuss the relationship between the two?
• Globalization is creating the chance of people’s
movement from poor countries to the rich ones.
• People also migrate to low developed countries such as
Africa e.g. the Chinese are in huge number in African
countries under different development projects
• One emerging global phenomenon is the restrictive
immigration policies and procedures to people’s
movement
Globalization
• The term globalization is related with economic exchange among
nations world wide via trade, immigration and capital flows
(Stewart, 2001). On the other hand it is described by Craig (2003)
as:
“Globalization means that the consequences of economic
decisions are felt ever more quickly by increasing numbers of
those who do not take, the decisions and who indeed may be
thousands of miles from the site of decision-making.” (p. 50).
• He also criticises the ‘exchange of economies’ concept when the
benefits of globalization are clearly distributed unevenly and that the
powerful economies cannot be ethical for their only responsibility is
accumulation of profit. According to him,
globalization is creating the chance of people’s movement from
poor countries to the rich ones. As this is a challenge for the
local social welfare and services, it indirectly results in
structural racism reflected in insensitive immigration policies
and attitudes towards immigrants (Craige, 2003).
Relationship between globalization and migration
• An example of the relationship between globalization
and migration is the case of Moroccan evolution of
migration, where it is understood that it started as a
result of development and globalization rather than
lack of development (De Haas, 2007). Consequently
the country was overtime unable to succeed in
reducing migration levels.
• The notion of migration for a long time has been
understood to be aimed at better way of life where the
prevalence is from the low developed countries to the
capitalized nations.
• However, in the recent years it is seen that people are
migrating, though temporarily, to the low developed
countries particularly Africa.
 Why globalization leads to mobility?
• A study on the Chinese movement to Africa by Kuang (2008) articulated
that a significant movement of the Chinese people to Africa was seen in
the last decade.
• According to Kuang (2008):
“The phenomenon is not well known, but comparing different
sources reveals three kinds of migrations: a labour migration within
the frame of public works realized by big Chinese enterprises, an
entrepreneurial migration composed mainly of traders” (p. 243)
• Such kinds of movements are related to the effect of globalization rather
than with low socio-economic status of the migrants.
• Additional globalization approach for migration is through informal or
formal networks (Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009; Tasse, 2007).
• These networks exist through information and communication
technologies that facilitate globalization (Blunt, 2007; Stewart, 2001).
• Consequently, networks have important role to play in accessing foreign
spaces by immigrants (Zuev, 2008).
Why…
• Actors of globalization are mainly trans-national
organizations, multilateral organizations and
corporations, states and other powerful units leading the
world’s economy (Buuba, 2007).
• Yet, a diasporic analysis can bring new actors on the
ground by recognizing the contribution of the Diaspora
for the development of a country both in formal and
informal ways (Mohan & Zach-Williamson, 2002).
• “Diasporas represent a form of 'globalisation from
below' - in which 'small' players, as opposed to mega-
corporations, make use of the opportunities offered by
globalisation.” (Mohan & Zach-Williamson, 2000: 233).
Facts about globalization
• Globalization has changed the world very fast
• We can see the impact of globalization everywhere in the world
• Globalization is one of the buzzword (jargon popularly used) of
our time
• The world is becoming a ‘global village’
• Increasing bilateral agreements among countries
• Consumer items are internationally distributed
• There are multinational companies across countries
• The interaction between countries is increasing. People are
becoming closer
• The world was always global from antiquity since there has
been trade and commerce; movement and migration of people.
Facts…
• The post 1980s phenomena is coined as
‘globalization’, different from the past it is
characterized by;
1. New markets
2. New technology tools like internet, cellular phones
etc
3. New actors like the World Trade Organizations
(WTO) with authority over national governments;
 the multinational corporations with more
economic power than many states
 the global networks of non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and other groups that
transcend national boundaries
Facts
4. New rules- Multilateral agreements on trade, services and intellectual
property, reducing the scope for national policy.
 Globalization is more than the flow of money and
commodities- it is the growing interdependence of the world’s
people.
 Globalization is an economic, political, social and cultural
phenomenon, aided by rapid developments in communication
and information.
 We as professionals should see how the various dimensions of
globalization impacts societies and different segments of
population
Dimensions of Globalization

• Globalization can be seen as a process of

social change that has brought distant and
different parts of the world into inter-relation
with one another (Anthony Giddens, 2001).
• It is characterized at least under four
phenomena
a) Economic phenomenon
b) Social phenomenon
c) Political phenomenon
d) Cultural phenomenon
a. Economic phenomenon
• Globalization stands for greater integration of national
economies into a world economy (global economy)
• It is an expansion of economic activities across the
political boundaries of nation states
• It is a process of deepening economic integration,
increasing economic openness and growing economic
interdependence between countries of the world
• Under the rule of economic globalization countries are
expected to open their doors to international
market/trade, international investment and international
finance.
• There are global production and global distribution
systems for some of the goods
Economic…
• Multinational companies have branches all over the
world to produce different parts with cheapest material
and labour force
• Multinational companies have supply chains and
marketing networks to sell them all over the world
• Consumers everywhere are now surrounded by such
global products
• Associated to market there is the globalization of
finance e.g. through the stock markets
• There is also the phenomenon of buying shares of
companies to benefit from the profit while sitting in
another country.
b) Social phenomenon

• The social dimension of globalization refers to the process

of integration in social relations and interdependence
among nations and people for creation of a global society
• The economic liberalization and the free market economy
and also the developments in communication and
transport facilitated the social integration
• Globalization has brought societies and communities into
a sphere of interactivity through trade and commerce; and
movements of people.
• There is exchange of cultures, ideas and systems of
knowledge between various parts of the world like never
before
 c) Political phenomenon
• Globalization brought the thinking beyond the political boundaries
• Globalization facilitates the creation of transnational governance in
which international governmental bodies dominate
• There is a growing idea of thinking beyond the nation state
• Globalization can be thought of as the relaxation of the authority of the
State in favor of the Market. There is undermining of the authority of
nation state.
• Globalization erodes the dominance of the institution of State.
• The State can no longer decide its economic priorities all by itself
because it operates in the context of an integrated global market where
other nations are also participating.
• Globalization also entails the coming together of the states for efficient
management of resources and their development
• We can say through globalization, there is a loss of power the State
and rise in power of other institutions like market, financial
organizations and non-governmental organizations.
d) Cultural phenomenon

• Globalization is leading to homogenization of

cultures and rise in consumption of global
goods across cultures. E.g. you may find
Ethiopian food in the USA or Ethiopian music
can be listened somewhere else
• There is an increase exchange of ideas and
thoughts through globalization
Impacts of Globalization

1) On Economy
 Global market dominated by TNCs and MNCs
 The inequality between the rich and the poor grows and widens
2) 2-On polity
 Affecting the structure of the state
 It created a hierarchical world in which few become the dominant
power (there are few countries that have veto power)
 New social movements across the world
3) On culture
 The development of ‘global culture’ as opposed to ‘national’ or
‘ethnic culture’
 More cultural information e.g. food in terms of MacDonaldization;
clothing/dressing style similarity among the global community
 Massive flow of people create a hybrid culture of the metropolis
 The globalization is pushing towards
 Individualism over collectivism
 Modernity over traditionalism
4. Migration and Development
The Role of migrants for development
• There is a correlation between migration and
development
• One contribution to the other. For instance,
many people migrate following the
development or growth of places.
• On the other hand many migrants contribute to
the development of the place of destiny.
Remittances
• Developing countries are benefiting from the remittance flows of
their Diaspora.
• Remittances are the most noticeable outcome of migration for the
developing countries.
• Their economies are awakened by remittances in most cases
• Definition of Remittance
– “Remittances are financial transfers made by migrants to their
countries of origin. They are largely used to supplement the
income of family members or friends back home, help take care
of aged parents, support unemployed relatives, or finance the
education of younger members of the family. Migrants may also
use them to buy property in their home country a house, land,
etc-or to accumulate capital in savings or investment accounts,
for future investments or to bankroll their retirement.”(Bathseba,
2007, p.5)
Remittances
• The remittances from migrants have an impact on national
development when improvements are observed in public goods
such as health and education. The remittance can include also the
non-monetary transfer.
• Remittance has been accounted as among the major or the largest
source of income for most developing countries.
• It sometimes can be even greater than the income from Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI) and export items. However, it is
questionable whether remittances are stable form of income.
• Remittances are critical sources of support in case of disasters and
contributing to the country of origin.
• Sometimes sending remittances can be a difficult burden for
migrants, who themselves may be struggling to meet the living
standards in the host country. This means we cannot always get
remittances in times of our needs.
Remittances
• It is known that developing countries in general
receive hundred billions from remittances.
• The Sub-Saharan Africa receives in ten billions
every year from remittance.
• Apart from immediate consumption remittances can
contribute greatly for the national development i.e.
for investment, small and middle- scale business,
human capital investment, land/house purchase etc
• On the negative side, remittance can create the
dependency feeling both at personal and at national
level
Return migration and development

• Return migration of the nationals to their place of origin has

implication for development
• There are three lines/ways to see the contribution of the
returnees to development
1) In terms of financial capital transfer – the accumulated
financial capital in the most country is now to be invested
here in the origin
2) Human capital- this is the capital in the form of
knowledge, skill and expertise obtained through
education ,training and working experience
3) Social capital –it is the capital that is transferred in the
form of resources that can be mobilized through networks,
associations or organizations. They can use it for
development purposes, for example, through fundraisings
Return…
• They create job opportunity through investments
• Do you think all return migrants spend through
money on predictive investments?
• Do they spend unreasonable amount of money to
luxurious houses, cars and items?
• Do you think the knowledge and skills they brought
can really be transferrable?
• Do they really contribute?
• Can we make discussions regarding the connection
between internal migration and development?
• Can the GTP bring about high levels of international
migration? Does it affect migration?
 Development induced displacement and resettlement

• People can leave or lose their homes and be displaced due to

development projects; e.g. construction of dams, urban
renewal and development and natural resource extraction, for
modern big farm land.
• We call those people affected by these interventions as
“development induced displaced people”
• There is the issue of resettlement associated with this
development induced displacement.
• It is generally agreed that resettlement has to be voluntary.
But in reality there are forced resettlement schemes or
involuntary relocation.
• This kind of forced resettlement may lead to failed
operations.
5. Ethiopian migration
Major destinations of Ethiopian migrants
• The top ten destination countries of Ethiopian migrants are:
1) United States,
2) Israel,
3) Saudi Arabia,
4) Germany,
5) Canada,
6) Sweden,
7) Italy,
8) United Kingdom,
9) Netherlands, and
10) Sudan (Ratha and Xu, 2006).
• Before the year 2000, Ethiopians mostly migrated to the west
mainly United States and Israel with considerable number in
Sweden, Germany, France, Greece, Canada, Australia, Belgium,
Switzerland, and New Zealand.
Destination…
• The destination points where Ethiopians migrate
before 2000 and the current top destination points are
more or less the same.
• Hence the trend of Ethiopian International migration
over the past years is to the same destinations mainly,
the United States, the Gulf States, Israel and Europe.
• On the other hand, Ethiopians do not only migrate to
developed countries.
• As per world Bank economists Dilip Ratha and
William Shaw, the ratio of migrants living in
developing countries is estimated to be two in five, in
2005 (Terrazas, 2007).
Destination…
• While deciding to migrate to the West, most Ethiopian
immigrants take indirect paths.
• According to Terrazas (2007) quoting Abye Tasse,
Ethiopian immigrants in France and the United states
mostly come through Djibouti, Sudan and Kenya
staying between one and three years on process.
• Correspondingly, in addition to the above major routes
to exact destinations taken by Ethiopian migrants,
Cairo, Somalia, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq,
Czechoslovakia, Greece, and the former East
Germany were also paths through which Ethiopians
pass to the West (US department of State, 2007).
Destination…
• To strengthen the above point, statistics from the United States
Department of Homeland Security can be taken as an example
which shows high rates of remigration in Ethiopian migrants’
case. The statistics reveals that (Terrazas, 2007):
“Of all Ethiopian citizens admitted to the United States between
1998 and 2005, on average around one-quarter did not list Ethiopia
as their last country of residence.”
• All in all, the main destinations of Ethiopian migrants are
primarily the United States, followed by the Gulf States,
Europe and Israel.
• To reach these destinations the major routes taken being
Djibouti, Sudan and Kenya.
• Ethiopians also pass through other countries settling for a
short period of time to re-migrate to the West.
Patterns and ways of Ethiopian international migration
• As the population increases, the number of migrants also
increases mostly for economic need.
• Yet, even if the number of migrants increases as the
population increases, we should also consider the return
dimension for migrants’ return after certain period of time
for different reasons as explained in the previous section
where the migrant stock decreases.
• Hence as can be illustrated from the table below, the
Ethiopian migrant stock is seen to increase from 1970 to
1990 but the number declines between 1990 and 2005.
• It can therefore be argued that Ethiopians highly migrated
to different parts of the world before 1990 but some
returned after 1990 which is a factor to the decline of the
growth rate of Ethiopian migrant stock after the same
 Ethiopia Migrant stock from 1970 – 2005

Indicator 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

International 394 582 392 082 404 192 583 658 1 155 390 794 667 662 444 555 054
migrants at
mid-year

Number of
20 500 8 530 10 930 180 440 741 965 370 777 227 824 109 432
refugees at MY

Population at 29 823 34 114 37 062 43 361 51 040 60 007 68 525 77 431

MY

Number of 171 197 175 193 183 840 268 229 548 106 376 069 311 823 258 100
female migrants
at MY

Number of male 223 385 216 889 220 352 315 429 607 284 418 598 350 621 296 954
migrants at MY
International
1.3 1.1 1.1 1.3 2.3 1.3 1.0 0.7
migrants as a %
of popn
Female migrants
43.4 44.7 45.5 46.0 47.4 47.3 47.1 46.5
as % of all
international
migrants
Refugees as a
5.2 2.2 2.7 30.9 64.2 46.7 34.4 19.7
percentage of
international
migrants