Database

Management
Systems
MODULE – 3
SQL AND AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
Introduction
The SQL language may be considered one of the major reasons for the commercial success of relational
databases Because it became a standard for relational databases, users were less concerned about
migrating their database applications from other types of database systems.
For example : older network or hierarchical systems—to relational systems.
The name SQL is presently expanded as Structured Query Language. Originally, SQL was called SEQUEL
(Structured English QUEry Language) and was designed and implemented at IBM Research. SQL is now
the standard language for commercial relational DBMSs.
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
 SQL uses the terms table, row, and column for the formal relational model terms relation, tuple, and
attribute, respectively.
The main SQL command for data definition is the CREATE statement, which can be used to create
schemas, tables (relations) as well as other constructs such as views, assertions, and triggers.
Schema and Catalog Concepts in SQL:
 An SQL schema is identified by a schema name and includes an authorization identifier to indicate the
user or account who owns the schema. Schema elements include tables, constraints, views etc.
The concept of an SQL schema was incorporated starting in order to group together tables and other
constructs that belong to the same database application (in some systems, a schema is called a
database).
A schema is created via the CREATE SCHEMA statement, Alternatively, the schema can be assigned a
name and authorization identifier.
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
 For example, the following statement creates a schema. Note that each statement in SQL ends with a
semicolon.
CREATE SCHEMA DATABASE_NAME ;
OR
CREATE DATABASE DATABASE_NAME
 In addition to the concept of a schema, SQL uses the concept of a catalog—a named collection of
schemas. A catalog always contains a special schema called INFORMATION_SCHEMA, which provides
information on all the schemas.

select * from information_schema.tables where table_name = 'customers’;

select * from information_schema.tables where table_name like '%cust%';
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
 The CREATE TABLE Command in SQL

 The CREATE TABLE command is used to specify a new relation(table) by giving it a name(table_name) and
specifying its attributes(columns) and initial constraints. The attributes are specified first, and each
attribute is given a name, a data type and possibly attribute constraints, such as NOT NULL.

 The key and referential integrity constraints can be specified within the CREATE TABLE statement after
the attributes are declared, or they can be added later using the ALTER TABLE command.

we can explicitly attach the schema name to the relation name(table name), separated by a period.

For example, by writing

CREATE TABLE COMPANY . EMPLOYEE

rather than

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE

SQL Data Definition and Data Types
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
The relations declared through CREATE TABLE statements are called base tables (or base relations). This
means that the table and its rows are actually created and stored as a file by the DBMS.

Base tables are distinguished from virtual tables, created through the CREATE VIEW statement. Virtual
tables does not have their data stored as a file. They depend on base tables to display the data.
create view students_view AS
select student_id , std_lastname
from students;
Select * from students_view;

In SQL, the attributes in a base table are considered to be ordered in the sequence in which they are
specified in the CREATE TABLE statement.
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
Attribute Data Types :
 The basic data types available for attributes include numeric, character string, bit string, Boolean, date,
and time.

Numeric data types include integer numbers of various sizes (INTEGER or INT) Formatted numbers can
be declared by using DECIMAL(i, j)—or DEC(i, j) or NUMERIC(i, j) - where i, the precision, is the total
number of decimal digits and j, the scale, is the number of digits after the decimal point. The default for
scale is zero, and the default for precision is implementation-defined.

Character-string data types are either fixed length—CHAR(n) or CHARACTER(n), where n is the number
of characters—or varying length— VARCHAR(n) or CHAR VARYING(n) or CHARACTER VARYING(n), where
n is the maximum number of characters.
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
 A BLOB is a Binary Large Object which can hold anything you want including images and media files.
Anything stored as a binary file. The data type called BINARY LARGE OBJECT or BLOB is available to
specify columns that have large binary values, such as images , documents etc.
A Boolean data type has the traditional values of TRUE or FALSE. In SQL, because of the presence of
NULL values, a three-valued logic is used, so a third possible value for a Boolean data type is UNKNOWN.
The DATE data type has ten positions, and its components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form YYYY-
MM-DD. The TIME data type has at least eight positions, with the components HOUR, MINUTE, and
SECOND in the form HH:MM:SS.
Only valid dates and times should be allowed by the SQL implementation. This implies that months
should be between 1 and 12 and days must be between 01 and 31. Furthermore, a day should be a valid
day for the corresponding month
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
A query containing all the datatypes :

Create table employee(

Emp_id int,
Emp_name varchar(20),
SSN char(9),
Dob date,
Salary decimal(10,2),
Emp_image blob,
Has_passport Boolean);
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
A timestamp data type (TIMESTAMP) includes the DATE and TIME fields . Literal values are represented
by single-quoted strings preceded by the keyword TIMESTAMP, with a blank space between data and
time; for example, TIMESTAMP ‘2014-09-27 09:12:47.648302’.
CREATE TABLE test_timestamp (t1 TIMESTAMP);
INSERT INTO test_timestamp (t1) VALUES('2008-01-01 00:00:01’);
Another data type related to DATE, TIME, and TIMESTAMP is the INTERVAL data type. This specifies an
interval—a relative value that can be used to increment or decrement an absolute value of a date, time,
or timestamp.
INTERVAL expr unit
SELECT '2020-01-01' + INTERVAL 1 DAY;
SELECT '2020-01-01' + INTERVAL -1 DAY;
SELECT '2020-01-01' + INTERVAL 1 MONTH;
SELECT '2020-01-01' + INTERVAL 1 YEAR;
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
SELECT DATE_ADD('2020-01-01', INTERVAL 1 MONTH) AS 1_MONTH_LATER
DATE_SUB('2020-01-01',INTERVAL 1 MONTH) AS 1_MONTH_BEFORE
The CAST() function converts a value (of any type) into the specified datatype.
SELECT CAST(150 AS CHAR);
SELECT CAST("2017-08-29" AS DATETIME);
CAST () function can also be used with different commands other than select command. Take an example
of creating a table:
CREATE TABLE castTest
( firstName CHAR(20),
lastName CHAR(20));
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
Cast() function can be used in insert :
INSERT INTO castTest(firstName, lastName)VALUES('Smith', CAST('2020-02-02' AS DATETIME));

Cast() function used in update:

UPDATE castTest
SET firstName = CAST('2021-03-03' AS DATETIME)
WHERE firstname = 'Smith';
SQL Data Definition and Data Types
 It is possible to specify the data type of each attribute directly alternatively, a domain can be declared,
and the domain name can be used with the attribute specification.

 For example, we can create a domain SSN_TYPE by the following statement:

CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9)
Create table person (
SSN SSN_TYPE,
Person_Name Varchar(50));
 Specifying Constraints in SQL
 Specifying Attribute Constraints:
Default and NOT NULL Constraints:
 Because SQL allows NULLs as attribute values, a constraint NOT NULL may be specified if NULL is not
permitted for a particular attribute.
It is also possible to define a default value for an attribute by appending the clause DEFAULT to an
attribute definition.
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Mysore');
Specifying Constraints in SQL
CHECK Clause:
Another type of constraint can restrict attribute using the CHECK clause.

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18));
Specifying Constraints in SQL
 Check Clause:

The CHECK clause can also be used in conjunction with the CREATE DOMAIN statement.
For example, we can write the following statement:
CREATE DOMAIN D_NUM AS INTEGER
CHECK (D_NUM > 0 AND D_NUM < 21);
 Specifying Constraints in SQL
 Specifying Key and Referential Integrity Constraints:

 The PRIMARY KEY clause does not allow duplicate values and null values. There can be only one
primary key in a table.
Create table dept (Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY);
Here in the table dept, Dnumber column is the primary key and in this column there should be no
duplicate and also null values.
The UNIQUE clause can also be specified directly for a unique key if it is a single attribute.
Create table dept(Mgr_ssn CHAR(9) UNIQUE);
Here the column dname is defined as unique key meaning this column will be having only unique values
but this columns allows null values.
Specifying Constraints in SQL
Specifying Constraints in SQL
 Foreign key constraint :
Specifying Constraints in SQL
 Specifying Key and Referential Integrity Constraints:
Referential Integrity – This means the values of the primary key column of a table should
match with the foreign key column of same table or another table.
The default action that SQL takes for an integrity violation is to reject the update operation that will
cause a violation, which is known as the RESTRICT option.
 However, the schema designer can specify an alternative action to be taken by attaching a referential
triggered action clause to any foreign key constraint.
The options given for the foreign keys include
RESTRICT
SET NULL
CASCADE
SET DEFAULT
Specifying Constraints in SQL
The options given for foreign keys explained briefly:
Here the parent row refers to the row of the table which is containing primary key and child row refers to
the row of the table which is containing foreign key.
Set NULL : Sets the column value to NULL when you delete or update the parent table’s row.
CASCADE : CASCADE will propagate the change when the parent changes. If you delete or update a row,
rows in constrained tables that reference that row will also be deleted or updated.
RESTRICT OR NO ACTION : RESTRICT causes you can not delete/update a given parent row if a child
row exists that references the value for that parent row.
SET DEFAULT : SET DEFAULT option causes you to set the default value in the child table column when the
parent table row is deleted/updated.
Specifying Constraints in SQL
i) Create a table with primary key by giving a name for primary key:

CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT

( Dnumber int,
CONSTRAINT DEPTPK PRIMARY KEY(Dnumber),
Dept_name VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL );
Specifying Constraints in SQL
ii) Create a table with primary key and foreign key by specifying names for both foreign keys with
on delete set null and on update cascade
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
Emp_no int,
Dno INT DEFAULT 1,
SSN varchar(9) primary key,
Super_ssn varchar(9),
CONSTRAINT EMPSUPERFK FOREIGN KEY (Super_ssn) REFERENCES EMPLOYEE(Ssn) ON DELETE
SET NULL,
CONSTRAINT EMPDEPTFK FOREIGN KEY(Dno) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)ON DELETE
SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE);
Specifying Constraints in SQL
iii) Create a table with on delete set default:

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE

( Emp_no int, Dno INT,
SSN varchar(9) primary key,
CONSTRAINT EMPDEPTFK FOREIGN KEY(Dno) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)ON DELETE
SET DEFAULT);
Specifying Constraints in SQL
iv) Create a table with on delete restrict:

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE1 (

Emp_no int,
Dno INT DEFAULT 1,
SSN varchar(9) primary key,
Super_ssn varchar(9),
CONSTRAINT EMPDEPTFK FOREIGN KEY(Dno) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT1(Dnumber) ON
DELETE RESTRICT );
Specifying Constraints in SQL
Giving Names to Constraints
 A constraint may be given a constraint name, following the keyword CONSTRAINT.
The names of all constraints within a particular schema must be unique. A constraint name is used to
identify a particular constraint in case the constraint must be dropped later.

Specifying Constraints on rows(tuples) Using CHECK

 The table constraints can be specified through additional CHECK clauses at the end of a CREATE TABLE
statement. These can be called row-based constraints because they apply to each row individually and
are checked whenever a row is inserted or modified.
Specifying Constraints in SQL
 Specifying Constraints on rows(tuples) Using CHECK

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18));
 Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
 SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information from a database:
The SELECT statement
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure of Basic SQL Queries
The basic form of the SELECT statement, sometimes called a mapping or a select-from-where block, is
formed of the three clauses SELECT, FROM, and WHERE and has the following form:

In SQL, the basic logical comparison operators for comparing attribute values with one another and with
literal constants are =, <=, >, >=, and <>.
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL

Select can be used to join two tables using a common column between the two tables:
In the below example we are trying to join the two tables.
Consider an example :
Example 1 : Retrieve all the information of all employees who work for the ‘Research’ department.
SELECT * FROM
employee2, department2
WHERE Dnumber = Dno and Dname = 'Research’;

The condition Dnumber = Dno is called a join condition, because it combines two tuples(two
records or rows): one from DEPARTMENT and one from EMPLOYEE
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Example 2: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the ‘Research’ department

SELECT fname, lname, address

FROM employee2,department2
WHERE DEPARTMENT2.Dnumber = EMPLOYEE2.Dno and Dname = 'Research’;
Example 3 : Creating a table with joined result
create table emp_dept as
SELECT fname, lname, address
FROM employee2,department2
WHERE DEPARTMENT2.Dnumber = EMPLOYEE2.Dno and Dname = 'Research';
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Ambiguous Attribute Names, Aliasing, Renaming, and Tuple Variables:
Example 1: In SQL, the same name can be used for two (or more) attributes as long as the attributes are in
different tables. If this is the case, and a multi table query refers to two or more attributes with the same
name, we must qualify the attribute name with the relation name to prevent ambiguity.

Example 1:
SELECT fname, lname, address, project_no
FROM employee2,department2,project
WHERE DEPARTMENT2.Dnumber = EMPLOYEE2.Dno and
project.Dnumber = department2.Dnumber and Dname = 'Research’;
Here Ambiguity is prevented by using tables name along with the column names
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Example 2:
select employee2.fname,employee2.lname,project.project_no
from employee2,department2,project
WHERE DEPARTMENT2.Dnumber = EMPLOYEE2.Dno and
project.Dnumber = department2.Dnumber and Dname = 'Research’;
Here also the ambiguity is prevented by specifying the table names with the columns.
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
We can use this alias-naming or renaming mechanism in any SQL query to specify tuple
variables for every table in the WHERE clause.

SELECT *FROM employee2 as e, department2 as d

WHERE d.Dnumber = e.Dno
and Dname = 'Research’;
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Unspecified WHERE Clause and Use of the Asterisk:
We discuss two more features of SQL here.
A missing WHERE clause indicates no condition on row selection; hence, all rows of the table
specified in the FROM clause qualify and are selected for the query result.
select * from
employee2,department2;
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
 We use the keyword DISTINCT in the SELECT clause, meaning that only distinct tuples should remain in
the result.
Example 1: select distinct Dno from employee;
Example 2: SELECT DISTINCT Dno FROM DEPARTMENT2, EMPLOYEE2;
Example 3: ( SELECT DISTINCT Dno
FROM DEPARTMENT2, EMPLOYEE2
WHERE employee2.Dno = department2.Dnumber AND employee2.lname = 'Guptha’ )
UNION
(SELECT DISTINCT Dnumber
FROM employee2, project
WHERE employee2.Dno = project.Dnumber AND employee2.lname = 'Guptha' );
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Substring Pattern Matching and Arithmetic Operators:
 This feature allows comparison conditions on only parts of a character string, using the LIKE
comparison operator. This can be used for string pattern matching.
SELECT Fname, Lname
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Address LIKE ‘%Houston,TX%’;
To retrieve all employees who were born during the 1970s, we can use Query
SELECT Fname, Lname
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Bdate LIKE ‘_ _ 7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _’;
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
 Retrieve all employees in department 5 whose salary is between $30,000 and $40,000.
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE (Salary BETWEEN 30000 AND 40000) AND Dno = 5;
 Ordering of Query Results Ordering of Query Results
SELECT *FROM
employee2, department2
where employee2.Dno = department2.Dnumber
order by employee2.fname;
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Ascending Order:
SELECT *FROM employee2, department2
where employee2.Dno = department2.Dnumber
order by employee2.fname ASC;
Descending Order:
SELECT *FROM employee2, department2
where employee2.Dno = department2.Dnumber
order by employee2.fname DESC;
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Discussion and Summary of Basic SQL Retrieval Queries:
A simple retrieval query in SQL can consist of up to four clauses, but only the first two—SELECT and
FROM—are mandatory. The clauses are specified in the following order, with the clauses between square
brackets [ … ] being optional.
 INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements in
SQL
 The INSERT Command:
QUERY 1 : INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (Fname, Lname, Dno, Ssn) VALUES (‘Richard’, ‘Marini’, 4, ‘653298653’);

QUERY 2 : INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (Fname, Lname, Ssn, Dno) VALUES (‘Robert’, ‘Hatcher’, ‘980760540’, 2);

(Query 2 is rejected if referential integrity checking is provided by DBMS.)

 The DELETE Command: The DELETE command removes tuples(rows) from a relation(table). It includes a WHERE clause,
similar to that used in an SQL query, to select the tuples to be deleted.

DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Lname = ‘Brown’;

DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Ssn = ‘123456789’;

DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE Dno = 5;

DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements in
SQL
The UPDATE Command : The UPDATE command is used to modify attribute values of one or
more selected tuples.
UPDATE PROJECT
SET Plocation = ‘Bellaire’, Dnum = 5
WHERE Pnumber = 10;
Aggregate Functions In SQL
 Aggregate functions are used to summarize information from multiple rows or records into a single-
row summary. Grouping is used to create subgroups of tuples before summarization.
Grouping and aggregation are required in many database applications, and we will introduce their use
in SQL through examples. A number of built-in aggregate functions exist: COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and
AVG.
The COUNT function returns the number of tuples or values as specified in a query. The functions SUM,
MAX, MIN, and AVG can be applied to a set or multiset of numeric values. The functions MAX and MIN
can also be used with attributes that have nonnumeric domains.
The syntax for calculating the minimum, maximum and average salaries
i) SELECT SUM (Salary), MAX (Salary), MIN (Salary), AVG (Salary) FROM EMPLOYEE
ii) SELECT COUNT (*) FROM EMPLOYEE;
Aggregate Functions In SQL
ii) SELECT SUM(Salary) AS Total_Sal, MAX(Salary) AS Highest_Sal,
MIN(Salary) AS Lowest_Sal, AVG(Salary) AS Average_Sal
FROM EMPLOYEE;

iv) SELECT SUM(Salary), MAX(Salary), MIN(Salary), AVG(Salary)

FROM EMPLOYEE
JOIN DEPARTMENT ON Dno = Dnumber
WHERE Dname = ‘Research’;

v) SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Salary)FROM EMPLOYEE;

Aggregate Functions In SQL
vi) Query to get the average salary and count of employees from each department
SELECT Dno, COUNT(*) as Emp_in_each_dept, AVG (Salary) as avg_salary
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY Dno;

vii) Query to get the Nth highest salary from the table (This query can be used to find 1 st highest,
2nd highest , 3rd highest and so on…)
select * from
(select * , dense_rank() over (order by salary desc) as DenseRank from Employee)
employee
where DenseRank = 4;
Subqueries:
Subqueries: A subquery is a SQL query nested inside a larger query. It can be used in a SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement
Subqueries used with the select:
SELECT emp_name
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE Ssn = Essn ) >= 2;
Here Essn is called the employee Ssn which is stored in the dependents table and Employee table has the
SSN Value.
Subqueries used with the insert:
insert into customers1(Customername, city, Country)
(select Suppliername, city, country from suppliers where country = 'germany');
Subqueries:
Subqueries used with the delete:
delete from employee
where Ssn <> all(select Essn from dependent)
Subqueries used with Update:
update employee
set Dno = 1005
where Dno <> all(select Dnumber from department);
Thankyou