Sarah Fray Civil Engineering Technology & Design

Senior Lecturer
Civil & Structural
Engineering Design Geotechnics

8 March 2024
 Geotechnics
What is ‘Geotechnics’?

• Geotechnical engineering is the field of civil engineering which relates to

the interaction between the built environment and the earth

• It can also include the study of sub-surface earth structures, actions and
conditions (often within the specialism of engineering geology)

• In geotechnics you will consider the construction structures built on or in

the ground, the impact and influence of water in the ground, pre-existing
works or natural features and of course earths processes which includes
seismic activity
 Geotechnics
• Today we discuss an overview of some aspects of Geotechnics

• Because Geotechnics is a large specialism covering a lot of different areas we

will be looking at three of the more common aspects for civil engineers:

 Foundations
 Soil Improvement
 Retaining Structures
 Geotechnics
Todays Learning Outcomes:

From our work today you will be able to:

• Understand the purpose of a structure’s foundation
• Have an appreciation of the breadth of available foundation solutions
• Explain how foundations spread the load
• Explain the advantages and limitations of foundation systems
• Critically consider the structure to be supported and select the right building
foundation for a particular project
• Appreciate the purpose of a retaining structure
• Explain the advantages and limitations of retaining structures
 Geotechnics

Foundations
 Geotechnics
What is the purpose of a foundation?
In some ways it is obvious – to support something standing in
place
• But foundations perform not just that – ALL loads imposed on a structure must be
transmitted to the ground for the structure to be ‘safe’.
• This includes:
 The mass of the structure: Dead load (or gravity load)
 The mass of all the uses it will be put to: Live load (again it’s a gravity load or pseudo-
gravity load) i.e. people, furniture, equipment, materials, vehicles etc. etc.
 The forces from the wind (lateral forces which are dynamic – although often treated as
pseudo-static)
 Seismic forces (can be extremely powerful, very destructive and are always dynamic)
 Dynamic forces (machine loads – machines will impose a live load but may also induce a
dynamic load if they have moving components – ie generator, pumps etc.)
And there are more!
 Geotechnics
We can therefore see that foundations are critical to a structure having adequate
resistance to the forces applied to it and remaining stable within reasonable
conditions

If it goes wrong – it can very wrong!!

 Geotechnics
Substructure and Superstructure
This is the superstructure

• The part of the structure

above the
ground/foundation

This is the substructure/ or

foundation

• The part of the structure

below the ground
 Geotechnics
What do foundations do?
• Transmit loads to the ground
• The loads can be:
 Vertical
 Lateral
 Inclined
 Dynamic

AND a foundation shouldn’t move excessively

 Geotechnics
Settlement and Consolidation
Most soils have water in them – this is
called pore water
When a new structure is built on the soil,
it applies a force which will compress the
soil structure the water in the pores of
the soil suffers an increase in pressure –
excess pore water pressure
• In very permeable soils (sands and gravels) this elevated pore water pressure dissipates
immediately and the soil settlement under load is immediate.

• In very fine-grained soils, the pore water pressure dissipates much more slowly and the
structure settles slowly – this is consolidation settlement
 Geotechnics
Differential Settlement

We know when the soil is loaded

by a structure it either suffers
immediate settlement or
consolidation settlement

If parts of a structure settle significantly different amounts this is called differential

settlement

Differential settlement can create much bigger problems than uniform settlement –
such as deflection induced bending moments and shear forces in beams, cracking walls,
loss of support to parts of the structure, broken services and drainage
 Geotechnics
Differential Settlement
 Geotechnics
Load Paths - Vertical Load Paths
Load on a beam
• Applies bending moments
Vertical • Shear Force
Reaction • Deflection
To the beam
Beam

(from beam load)

• Compression
Force in column
Vertical
Column

Shear
Column load
spread through Foundation load
foundation applied to ground
• Compression

Ground reaction
to applied load
 Geotechnics
Load Paths - Lateral Load Path
Lateral Load applied to Structure
Such as: Horizontal
• Wind Shear Force
• Seismic
• Dynamic Horizontal Reaction
Force from ground
Overturning Moment

Ground Reaction to applied loads

• Because there is an overturning moment

the reaction isn’t uniform
Horizontal Reaction - Friction

• If the resultant force through the foundation is outsides its middle third, tension will form
under the foundation and the compression force on the edge of the foundation will become
very high
 Geotechnics
Shallow v. Deep Foundations
There is no clear demarcation between a shallow and deep foundation
• Shallow foundations are generally solid mass or reinforced concrete strip foundations or pad
foundations
• Deep foundations typically require much more technical construction techniques and plant
GL (Ground Level)

Shallow
foundations
- 3.5m approximately

Deep foundations
 Geotechnics
Forms of Shallow Foundation
Strip Foundation (Footing)
• Typically used under load
bearing walls
• Width = digger bucket width
• Max depth max depth of
excavator or stability of the
sides
Pad Foundation
• Isolated RC or Mass Concrete
pads
• Used to support columns or
high load points in load bearing
masonry
• Commonly connected by strip
footings
Raft
• Distributes load over large area
• Supports all the structure
• Always reinforced concrete
• Complex to design – to spread load
as uniformly as possible, load must
be balance and raft stiff
 Geotechnics
Forms of Deep Foundation
Basement Piled
• Foundation and a • Reinforced
basement are Concrete Pads
integrated or slab
• Basement • Piles work in
commonly end bearing and
requires retaining friction
wall • Requires special
• May be ground machinery to
bearing or piled construct
inside • Piles can be
reinforced
concrete, steel
or timber
 Geotechnics
Engineering solutions for foundations
Superstructure

Are the shallow soils capable of carrying load?

Yes No

Shallow Foundations Ground Improvement Deep Foundations

(Ground Improvement not

practical/too expensive?)

Strip Footings Pads Fdn.s Raft Piled Basement

 Geotechnics
Shallow Foundations
Vertical loads are distributed through
the foundation

• If the edge of the foundation from the

centre line is greater than its depth
the foundation will require to be
reinforced
• The foundation load is distributed
evenly over the width and length of
the foundation
• Weaker soils require large
foundation area
 Geotechnics
Shallow Foundations
The effect of an eccentric load on a ground bearing foundation
Eccentricity = ecc Eccentricity = ecc
Load applied on Not greater than Greater than w/6
centre w/6
w = width

Tension forms
here
This should be
Load distributed Trapezoidal load Triangular load avoided
uniformly distribution distribution
 Geotechnics
Shallow Foundations
This excavation is over
1.2m deep and not
supported
This illegal in UK, in the
event of an accident =
custodial sentence!

Soil appears to be sandy

High risk of collapse of
excavation

Pad
Foundations Strip
Foundation/footing
 Geotechnics
Shallow Foundations
Construction Sequence
1. Setting out (surveying!) 6. Reinforcement.
2. Excavate 7. Holding down bolts if a steel
3. Install excavation supports if structure, otherwise starter bars
ground is unstable or depth greater for a concrete structure
than 1.2m 8. Set levels for Top of Concrete (ToC)
4. Concrete blinding 9. Pour concrete
5. Formwork, if required. 10. Compact
11. Cure
12. Strike formwork
13. As built checks
 Geotechnics
Ground Improvements
Ground Improvement techniques are used to improve the capability of the
ground to withstand applied loads

Typically used for relatively light loading including, strip footings, pads and rafts.

All work by compacting the soils

Main types:
• Pre-consolidation – apply a pre-load to the ground, typically existing structures which are
removed
• Dynamic compaction – drops a very big and heavy weight from a crane multiple times
• Vibro-compaction – vibrating stone columns into the ground spaced along foundations
• Replacement e.g. jet grouting – grout (cement slurry or similar) jetted into the ground
• Drainage – reduces pore water pressure and increases density – typically ‘wick drains’
 Geotechnics
Dynamic Compaction
• Drop a big weight (6 to 35 tonnes)
from a crane on to the ground.
• Several times.
• Done on a grid pattern across the
site.
• Effective in sand, but not clay

https://civildigital.com/ground-improvement-techniques-complete-list-of-
methods-classifications/
 Geotechnics
Vibro-Compaction
A technique that uses a heavy vibrating large
poker supported by a crane. This may vibrate
stones columns into the ground, simply
compact the ground by vibration or jet grout

Vibro-replacement/vibro-columns:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDe6Y8RoBIE
Vibro-compaction:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fI54TqFbbgM

Jet grouting:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u2MtF90NMXk
 Geotechnics
Deep Foundations: Piled
P P
Pile load transmitted Pile load transmitted
by friction and some by friction and
end bearing significant end
bearing

Pile relies heavily on Weak strata Pile acts as a

the friction between restrained column
the pile and ground bearing on the
Favours the use of Strong strata strong strata along
cast insitu concrete with gaining benefit
type piles from friction
 Geotechnics
Deep Foundations: Piled
Driven / displacement
• Precast concrete, or steel pile
hammered or pushed in the to ground
using a pile driving machine
• Displaces soil
• Ideal for lose soil (don’t need to support
the excavation)
• Stronger for the same size as a
replacement pile
• Quality of pile is known
• Can be driven to “refusal” and/or tested
• Can be deflected by hard points in the
ground.
• Induces ground vibrations for a long
distance – neighbour and damage issues
Replacement / bored pile
• Hole is bored using a rotary piling rig
• Reinforcement cage is lowered in
• Concrete is poured in.
• Hole may need to be supported e.g. in lose material –
Cased Bored Pile
• Hole may be filled with slurry to support sides –
bentonite
• Continuous flight auger Piling(CFA) address the
issues above (excavates and places concrete, before
cage lowered in) and are very commonly used
• Process produces much less noise and vibration.
• Piles are load tested to confirm performance
• Can be under-reamed
• Cast insitu piles can be compromised by ground
water
 Geotechnics
Deep Foundations: Piled
Driven Piles
Commonly driven piles are:
• Precast concrete, with a steel driving shoe on
the toe
o These are supplied in fixed section lengths
and are connected at joints with specialist
cast in connection systems
• Steel
o Typically universal bearing pile section (UBP)
o Circular Hollow Sections (CHS)
o Often driven in a single length to avoid
connections – 12m
• Timber
o Used in particular situations such as some
marine structures
Bored Piles
All bored piles are insitu cast concrete
generally with reinforcement
• Reinforcement allows for tension to be
developed in the pile against uplift forces
and to control shrinkage cracking
• Avoid compression reinforcement of a
bored pile – make the pile bigger!
• Reinforcement commonly full depth for
bored piles whether cased or uncased
• CFA piles reinforcement commonly extends
about 6m
 Geotechnics
Deep Foundations: Piled
Cased Bored Piles Bored Under-reamed Piles
Drive casing Withdraw
into ground Place casing as Bore using Insert
Excavate to Bore Pile
reinforcement concrete specialist reinforcement
req’d depth Shaft
cage poured machine cage
inside under-ream Pour concrete
 Geotechnics
Deep Foundations: Piled
What does a pile cap do?

Shares the load between the piles P

• The pile cap can be designed to share the
load equally Pile cap
• Or to put different loads on individual
piles Pile caps are nearly
always constructed
from reinforced
concrete
(In specialist situation
a steel grillage may be
used (commonly
temporary works)
 Geotechnics
Deep Foundations: Piled
Typical Pile Cap configurations

2 Pile Cap 3 Pile Cap 4 Pile Cap

However pile caps come in a wide variation is sizes, pile numbers and pile configurations

• Floor slabs can also be piled on a grid if the ground conditions dictate
• A 2 Pile Cap will require a lateral restrain bean perpendicular to the 2 pile direction to
design out any eccentricity between the applied load and the pile centres
 Geotechnics
Deep Foundations: Piled

A 21 Pile Cap: The single reinforcing Typical Pile Caps – post casting and
bar is to allow tension to be formwork being stripped
developed in the piles
 Geotechnics
Basements: Traditional Basement Construction
The basement is built under the building
• Its quite possible to have just a below ground
storey with no building above of course

‘Strong backs provide mid-

support to the retaining
Note the long ‘shoring’
wall
– the inward thrust of
the walls is countered
by that from the
opposite wall Retaining wall
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction

Temporary steel sheet

piled retaining wall
RC concrete Ground
Beam

Basement constructed in a large

excavated hole
• Walls and base of reinforced
concrete
• Walls will require shuttering Contiguous Flight Auger
piled retaining wall
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction

Temporary retaining wall

may be left insitu and
become part of the
works
Temporary sheet
pile retaining wall
behind
Reinforcement for
walls being
positioned

Reinforcement
RC concrete
Slab edge infill starter bars for
base slab
columns and walls
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction Super-structure
is constructed as
Top-Down Basement Construction basement is built

Excavate below GF
slab
• (Break out piles if
plunge columns
Install retaining walls used)
from ground level Construct -1 LVL slab
• Typically CFA piled Install internal piles:
• Piles may be cased to be Excavate below -1 LVL
wall or Diaphragm
internal columns slab
wall
• Alternatively insert • (Break out piles if
plunge steel columns plunge columns used)
Cast ground Floor slab into piles Construct -2 LVL slab
• Opening left in slab to with integral pile caps
allow plant to work below
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction 12.5m Ferro-cement yacht
hull !
Basements will Float

If the buoyancy exceeds the dead gravity load Very little dead gravity
(Boats can be made from ferro-cement !!!) load applied to the
basement
This is an important issue don’t forget
the temporary condition
• The same problem applies to tanks
sunk into the ground! Ground Water Table
• This is a problem that can occur to
large and small basements
• Remember seasonal variations
Water table is high
relatively to the
basement base
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction
Dewatering for basements
Ground water presents many construction problems when building a basement
Well point system on
One solution is to dewater the site a construction site

Ground water is pumped

out from well points
around the basement

Dewatering/well points are used on sites

where there are ground water problems
not just basement sites

HOWEVER dewater can/will effect adjacent sites and property

 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction
Leaking and Basements
A solution is ‘tanking’
Ground water leaking into basements is always a A waterproof membrane is put on the walls and
challenge floor slab
• It is essential to design and detail work to minimise the risk of Membrane on the outside
• Difficult to build
leakage
• Quality controlled construction is also essential • Easily damaged during construction and then
Even then the basement can leak!!!! leaking
• Ground water pushes membrane onto the
structure
Membrane on the inside
• Easy to build
Membrane in the
• Damage can be avoided
inside – therefore a
• Ground water leakage pushes the membrane
loading wall and slab
is requires off the structure
• There loading walls and second floor slab
required!
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction
Leaking and Basements
Another solution could be to provide a
drainage blanket on the inside of the
structure
• Drains into an internal drain and sump
and is pumped out of the basement

Wall drainage membrane

Internal finish (MUCH better to
use a brickwork wall!)
Floor loading slab
Floor drainage membrane
Drainage channel leading
to sump pump
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction
Leaking and Basements

Making the concrete ‘waterproof’

Concrete is not by nature fully water proof – see materials lectures

• Concrete shrinks as it cures and hence cracks, it can also crack because it is restrained (fixed in
position) when it cures and can even crack from plastic shrinkage as it cures over time
Cracks = leakage potential

You can put waterproof additives in the concrete – but they often don’t help and don’t stop
shrinkage cracking

You can design the concrete to be a ‘water retaining structure’ the design process limits the crack
widths to such a degree as to limit/stop leakage, the design is complex
 Geotechnics
Basements: Construction
Leaking and Basements
Where is reinforced concrete most likely to leak?
• You’ve designed the reinforcement to control
Welded joints in
cracking
• The contractor is using great quality control waterbar at changes
of direction
The construction joints are the most likely place
• Using proper site practice will reduce the risk but
not eliminate it
Waterbar in floor slab and wall
So you can design in to use waterbars and waterstops
Joint would be filled with a
flexible filler and sealed
with a polysulphide seal
Waterbar cast into
Typical
concrete slab
waterbars
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures
There are two principle types of retaining structures:
1. Externally supported systems (outside the ground)
2. Internally supported systems (the support for the ground is within the
ground)

Externally Supported Systems Internally Supported Systems

Cantilever Walls Gravity Walls

Reinforced soils Back anchored
• May have intermediate • Depend on mass for stability
• Geotextile in layers • Tie bars to an
support from ground • Commonly Concrete
anchor fixed
anchors or ring beams • Masoney – concrete, brick
some way
stone
behind the wall
• Rock filled timber cells - crib-
loc wall
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures:
Internally supported

Ground Anchor
Reinforced Earth
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures:
Concrete piles are constructed adjacent
Externally supported to each other
• Note the gaps between the piles
Cantilever Retaining Structures which would allow retained soil and
ground water to pass through

Steel Pile Retaining All (UBP section) Contiguous Flight Auger Piled Wall
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures:
Externally supported Primary ‘Soft’ concrete piles installed

Cantilever Retaining Structures

Secondary ‘hard’ higher strength concrete

piles installed second
• Note how the secondary piles are cut into
Secant Flight Auger Piled Wall
the primary piles making a continuous
This type of wall is installed using a powerful CFA wall structure
piling rig
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures:
Externally supported Specialist
Diaphragm Wall
Diaphragm Wall Retaining Structures machine

Panels excavated by grabber.

Walls supported by bentonite
Produces a fairly smooth and uniform slurry. Concrete poured from
internal face to the wall bottom and reinforcement cage
placed
Bentonite must be captured as it is Concrete
Reinforcement
displaced it is a serious environmental pumped in
Each excavation is dropped into
pollutant to displace
supported using Bentonite filled
Bentonite
Bentonite pumped in ‘slot’
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures: Prop uses opposing

Externally supported forces to support the
retaining walls

Retained
Height

Embedded
Depth

The prop could be permanent floor slabs

The basic elements of a Cantilever Retaining or a steelwork temporary works system
Structure Propped Cantilever Retaining Structure
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures:
Externally supported
Sheet piling being driven using a
vibrating driver mounted on a 360o
excavator

Interlocking

Sheet Piling is:

• Fast
• Effective at retaining reasonable heights
• Interlocking
• But is is unprotected steel
• Corrodes
• Is consider temporary
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures:
Externally supported
Concrete/masonry
Gravity wall
Granular backfill

Geotextile

Weep holes

Land drain Mechanics of the forces on a gravity wall

Principle elements of a gravity retaining wall
 Geotechnics
Retaining Structures:
Externally supported
Gabion Walls
• Strong wire baskets are
filled with large rocks
which work together by
friction
• Very cost effective
retaining structure
• Could be considered
temporary Crib-Lock Wall
• Environmentally • Timber grid cells filled with
sympathetic granular free-draining material
• Is generally used to be
environmentally sympathetic
• Longevity is determined by
timber preservation
 Geotechnics

Retaining Structures: Rarely is the

back face of
Externally supported the wall
angled –
typically it is
parallel

Wall Base Wall Stem Toe – maybe at the

Base
front middle or back
Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Retaining Wall of the wall
Basic mechanics of a RC Cantilever Wall
 Geotechnics

Retaining structures: How do Gravity Retaining Walls typically

Fail ?

Failure of the wall stem Forward sliding

Design failure in stem capacity Insufficient front resistance
(this is a structural failure) and friction under the base

Soil doesn’t have

the capacity to Bearing at the toe
Overturning
support the toe Insufficient dead load behind wall stem
force
 Geotechnics
Retaining structures: How do Gravity Retaining Walls
typically Fail ?

What is one of the most common reason retaining walls fail???

Ground water behind the wall not being able to drain freely away
• Applies hydrostatic pressure to the wall – increasing the applied forces
• Reduces the density of the ground below the base
• Reduces base friction

Always consider ground water drainage when you are designing a

retaining wall