• Discussing theories of the teaching of FAL

Introduction
Teaching FAL is a phenomenon the whole world is grappling with.
• Some literature says that this manifestation tends to become problematic
if the second language replaces the first language as the language of
teaching and learning (Cummins, 2000; Skuttnabb-Kangas, 2004)
• The objective is not to subtract the first language, rather add another
language.
 What does research say ?
• Research indicates factors which are based on cultural and linguistic
differences between the second language learners’ background and the
new language as the source of challenges for FAL learners to acquire
proficiency (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998; Henning Dampier 2012).
• Identify differences and commonalities between home language or
mother tongue (first language) a new language (second or
additional/target language). (Phatudi, 2013).
 Components of reading
Understanding these factors above, will help reduce problems related to the five essential elements
of reading instruction.
• phonemic awareness- an understanding of how individual phonemes (consonant or vowel
sounds) can be manipulated and arranged to create words.
• Phonics-connection of different sounds with different letters, or different groupings of letters. For
example, the letter ‘s’ gives an /s/ sound but adding an ‘h’ gives the different sound of /sh/.
• Fluency- the ability to read with speed, understanding, and accuracy.
• Vocabulary- the range of words a student can understand and use in context, a toolbox than a
skill, students’ vocabularies grow as they read and are introduced to new words.
• Comprehension-is a student’s understanding of the information being imparted by a text.
 How do children learn language?
• The first language or mother tongue is acquired from infancy and
develops throughout schooling and adulthood (Makoe, 2013).
• First, they listen to the language.
• assimilate the sound system and the meaning of words, before
attempting to verbalise it.
• read pictures and words through association before formal reading of
words.
 How do children learn language? Cont.
• The acquisition of a second language — or a First Additional Language can
occur from infancy
• as a school subject it occurs much later in a child's life.
• (FAL) acquisition is not automatic but requires a conscious effort on the
part of the learner to acquire and develop it.
•FAL is learned at a much slower pace than the pace of the acquisition and
learning of the child's first language.
 How do children learn language? Cont.
• The principles of language acquisition are the same for the home and additional
language learner.
• Phonemic awareness in the home language hold true for FAL learning, in
principle, for example, teaching of rhyming words.
•The pace, speed and lots of repetition, important for FAL.
•The process of learning a new language requires more repetition than
teaching the first language.
•However, even if new words are taught and repeated, they should always be
taught within context for meaning to dawn upon learners.
 CAPS documents
•Home Language objectives assume that learners can understand and speak the
language when they come to school.
• FAL objectives assume that learners do not necessarily have any
knowledge of the additional language when they arrive at school.
•A FAL environment should provide numerous opportunities for listening to the
language before learners are expected to respond orally.
•Exposure to the language, objects are labelled, books are provided in the
target language, and a good deal of the language is spoken (Phatudi, 2013).
 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HOME LANGUAGE

• Home Language as a springboard (foundation) for learning an additional language (Cummins, 2000;
Espinosa, 2010; Ball, 2010).
• Home language is the child's first language and is a language in which first concepts are established.
• The concepts learned in HL can form a basis on which concepts in the additional language can be based.
• Toukomaa and Skutnabb Kangas (1977) the "threshold level hypothesis”. Children can attain competence
in an additional language only if they have reached a threshold of competence in their home language.
• Gaining competence in FAL will not affect the competence in the child's first language. The child will add
another language to his first language, thus developing a state which is called "additive bilingualism".
 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HOME LANGUAGE: Cummin’s
hypothesis

• Cummins (2000) — like Toukomaa and Skutnabb-Kangas (1977) believes that gaining competence
in an additional language depends on the competence attained in the home language.
• Cummins refers to the "interdependence hypothesis" that asserts that additional language mastery
depends upon the level of development of the home language. He distinguishes between two levels
of language mastery, namely:
• Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), which is contextualized and everyday
language, and,
• Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), which is achieved in decontextualized
ways, for example writing and academic debates.
 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HOME LANGUAGE: Cummin’s hypothesis

• Achievement of CALP in a learner’s HL will allow competency in his FAL.

• Children who have developed competency in their HL will be able "to decipher (decode)
differences and similarities between their HL (sometimes referred to as Ll — or first
language) and the first additional language" (Phatudi, 2013).
• Espinosa (2010) in a study on Spanish learners in American schools found that
competency in home language promoted learning instead of having a delaying effect.
Acknowledging and recognising the different backgrounds and languages children bring
into class, promote their cognitive development, thus having a positive effect on
language development instead of delaying the achievement in learning the FAL.
 Additive bilingualism
• A state where a Second Language is gradually added to the first/home language of the individual
without subtracting the home language of the speaker, hence leading to bilingualism, when
conducted well.
• These views support "additive bilingualism", which means that mother tongue as a language
should be developed alongside FAL, as against "subtractive bilingualism", which implies that
mother tongue is replaced by any FAL (Department of Education, 1997).
• If learners are proficient in HL, the focus should be on differences between that language and the
new language. Additional work can be done on phonemes that are not present in the learners' home
language. The adopted and adapted words from English/Afrikaans to African languages can be
used to reinforce similar words in English/isiXhosa. For example: imoto, iapile, itafile
 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING OF FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE (FAL)

• The Language in Education Policy (LiEP) of 1997 (Department of

Education, 1997) and the South African Schools Act (SASA) of 1996
(Department of Education, 1996) state that parents have the right to
register their children in schools of their own choice.
• The SASA further empowers School Governing Bodies (SGBs) to
determine the language of learning and teaching (LOLT) of the school.
The onus is upon parents to register children at schools which offer their
choice of LOLT.
FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING OF FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE (FAL)

•Learning SL differs from context to context.

•However, learning any FAL follows predetermined steps, starts with
listening before attempts are made at speaking.
•In the CAPS (Department of Basic Education) FAL and Home language
curricula are organized around four (4) domains of language skill, which
are Listening and Speaking, Reading and Phonics, Writing, and Language
Structure and Use.
 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING OF FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE (FAL)

• A HL learner can express himself in his home language, while FAL learner needs to learn
FAL.
• Abundant opportunity to listen to the language before attempting to speak the language,
should not be pressured to speak until they are ready.
• Proficiency in a language requires an extensive vocabulary.
• Lack of vocabulary has been singled out as the main reason why FAL learners are unable
to express themselves.
• The CAPS states that it is important to set targets for vocabulary learning in the Foundation
Phase
 LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS

• Speaking and listening skills most important skills for learning additional language.
• Develop oral ability for a learners to express themselves in the additional language before any formal
reading and writing can be introduced.
• Use of the strategy "Total Physical Response" where learners listen to instructions and then respond,
for example: "Touch your knee; clap your hands; turn around; jump up and down.“
• The "puppet", can be used to give the instructions.
• The daily "read-alouds" of stories to learners, in which they join in saying repetitive phrases,
• Arranging pictures in sequence, to demonstrate their understanding of the story .
• "Shared reading" reading from a Big Book or poster, text is repeated often. Gradually the learners
join in reading the text that the teacher points out with a pointer as she reads.
 LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS

• . Vocabulary is important if learners are expected to express themselves orally, reading and writing
proficiently.
• FAL classroom should concentrate on the acquisition of vocabulary that is functional and features within
learners' world.
• . New words must be within context so that learners can hear and understand how they are used in speech.
• Teacher must engage students when introducing labels, can demonstrate the action, at the same time
verbalizing it.
• Allow learners to listen to the new language, especially the new sound system. If learners are confident
enough to interact with you, this is an indication that the learner understands how new words introduced are
used. Allow learners to interact with you and other learners in the "new" language.
 EXAMPLE: EXTENDING LEARNERS' VOCABULARY BY USING
LABELS IN THE CLASSROOM

• Label items in your classroom and use labels in speech. Point at

the label as you speak about it.
• Create a poster with pictures of the labelled objects in the classroom. The
teacher can point at the label (pen) and say: I write with a pen.
 EXAMPLE: VOCABULARY EXTENSION USING CHARTS AND
PICTURES

• Pictures and charts are great resources for teaching vocabulary. The teacher
can start by naming things on the picture or chart with learners. Gradually
involved learners too.
• Use, for example, a picture of a kitchen with labels (e.g., potatoes). Use the
labels (e.g., potatoes) in full sentences. For example:
• I peel potatoes with a knife. Ndichuba iitapile ngemela.
• I sweep the floor with a broom. Nditshayela umgangatho ngomtshayelo.
• My mother is cleaning the house. Umama ucoca indlu.
 EXAMPLE: VOCABULARY EXTENSION USING CHARTS AND PICTURES

• Allow learners to use the sentences as taught by the teacher.

• Allow learners to use the newly taught words in their own sentences.
• Wrong sentences should be accepted too.
• The aim is to build learners' confidence in using FAL.
• Learners' attempts should be acknowledged and praised.
 READING SKILLS

• Reading strategies are classified into two distinct categories, namely;

• bottom-up processing of reading (focusing on the sounds of the language — decoding strategies,
e.g., phonics),
• top-down processing of reading (focusing on comprehension strategies).
• These approaches are complementary to one another. Eskey (1988) in Birch (2002: 5), claims that
"second language learners need to attend more to bottom-up approaches than do first language
readers". He maintains that FAL learners may be unable to use contextual clues within and outside
the text to decode the meaning of the text.
• Therefore, the top-down approach might not initially be helpful to FAL learners due to their
linguistic disadvantage.
 READING SKILLS

• Study the model adapted from Birch (2002:6). On p10 of Chapter 10, it explains the reading
processes expected of a reader.
• Reading is not about decoding letters and sounds, but it is about decoding the meaning of the text.
The above figure is divided into two sections, namely processing strategies and knowledge base.
Processing strategies are further categorized into cognitive processing strategies (higher-order
thinking) and language processing strategies (lower-order thinking).
• Both reading strategies must be employed.
• Cognitive processing strategies call for higher-order processing skills such as inference,
predicting, problem solving and construction of meaning. One can only be able to engage with
text on this level if language processing strategies are also employed.
Language processing strategies Knowledge base for language

Phrases and sentences

Words and word meanings

Letters and choices for

spelling

Sounds
Ph in "phatudi" is an explosive sound P as in pot
Th in "thaba" is an explosive sound
T as in tin
Kh in "khiba" is an explosive sound
C as in cane
 Reading processes and reading knowledge

• The meaning of the words must be clear, contextual cues are available and the letter-sound
relationship is known.
• FAL learners are, however, initially lagging on this skill, as the initial phase of first language learning
is about building the vocabulary and perfecting their grasp of the letter-sound relationship of the
home language, which in most instances is different. from the English phonics.
Traversing(crisscrossing) the two worlds, i.e.
The African sound system and the English sound system, is not simple and should be monitored, as the
possibility of transference of sound system and orthography (spelling) from one language to another may
have negative results.
the possibility of transference of sound system and orthography (spelling) from one language to another
may have negative results.
• The beginning stage of reading FAL is language knowledge. The CAPS
(Department of Basic Education) says that learners must build a sound
knowledge of word sounds and a basic vocabulary to be proficient
language users.
• Vacca, Vacca, Gove, Burkey, Lenhart and McKeon (2012) and Gunning
(2010) say that it is important to concentrate on language knowledge
before proceeding to world knowledge. This understanding is explicated
in the diagram below.
A hypothetical model based on bottom-up reading processor
Source: Birch (2002:3)
•The six reading stages:
The pre-reader stage

•The letter recognition stage. In this stage learners can recognize letters in their own names
and similar letters in words. They read a book by using the pictures as clues. According to Birch
(2002), this is the ability to use the top-down approach combined with the bottom-up approach.
The two approaches seem to be used side by side.
•Au (2006) writes that teachers should not drill phonics outside the reading context.
•Drilling phonics becomes meaningless as this does not offer learners an immediate
opportunity to transfer a learned skill to decoding a written text.
 The emergent reader

• In this stage learners associate a letter with its corresponding sound. They
can associate written symbols (letters) with their spoken symbols (sounds).
If this association is done with automaticity, fluent reading is bound to
happen.
• According to Au (2006: 161), the purpose of teaching phonics during this
stage should be to "help students store up words that they will be able to
draw on in the future, to read most words instantly and automatically". She
maintains that as words are decoded phonetically, they become part of
learners' "automatic recognition mechanism for reading" (Au, 2006: 161) .
 The early reader

• The ability to associate the spoken word with its written form is used to
decode the meaning of texts (top-down approach). Processing becomes much
more automatic if reading is done extensively.
• Teaching phonics is still of significance in this stage.
• However, learners should be allowed to engage in reasoning about the letter-
sound relationship. They must draw their own conclusion on how the sound-
letter relationship works, to enable them to make meaningful decisions on how
to decode new words which they encounter for the first time.
 The developing reader

• Reading is done to acquire knowledge. More vocabulary is learned in

order to understand a variety of reading texts. Learners use top-down
strategies in looking for facts to complete their own understanding of the
text.
• They look for other clues which might make the reading text easy to
decode. Fluency and reading comprehension become very important in
helping learners to decode the meaning of texts.
 The early fluent reader and the independent reader

• Reading is a means of learning. Top-down strategies of inferring,

analyzing and synthesizing become crucial in understanding complex
texts. These Stages are perfected by reading more complex and
challenging texts.
• Very little teaching of word identification skills is necessary; however, this
should not be altogether ignored. This is the two stages where learners
have to show their ability to use decoding skills to make meaning of what
they are reading about.
• Thank you