EEE 488 Renewable and Alternate

Energy Systems
Week# 1,2
Wind Energy Systems

Dr. Sadiq Ahmad

Wind Power Systems

2
 Historical Development of Wind
Power
• The first known wind turbine for producing
electricity was by Charles F. Brush turbine, in
Cleveland, Ohio in 1888
• 12 kW
• Used electricity to
charge batteries

Note the
person

http://www.windpower.org/en/pictures/brush.htm
3
 Historical Development of Wind
Power
• First wind turbine outside of the US to generate
electricity was built by Poul la Cour in 1891 in Denmark
• Used electricity
from his wind
turbines to
electrolyze water
to make hydrogen
for the gas lights

http://www.windpower.org/en/pictures/lacour.htm 4
 Historical Development of Wind
Power
• In the US - first wind-electric systems built in the
late 1890’s
• By 1930s and 1940s, large numbers in rural areas
not served by the grid for pumping
water and sometimes electricity generation
• Interest in wind power declined as the utility
grid expanded and as reliable, inexpensive
electricity could be purchased
• Oil crisis in 1970s created a renewed interest in
wind
• Renewed interest again since the 1990s
Photo: www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/W/AE_wind_energy.html 5
 Global Installed Wind Capacity

Total worldwide electric capacity is 4500GW, so

wind, at almost 743GW, is 7% of total
Source: Annual Market Update 2021, Global Wind Energy Council, International Energy Agency (IEA), United
States Energy Information Administration (EIA) 6
 Global Wind Power Forecast

Total worldwide electric capacity is 4500GW, so

wind, at almost 743GW, is 7% of total
Source: Annual Market Update 2021, Global Wind Energy Council, International Energy Agency (IEA), United
States Energy Information Administration (EIA) 7
 Wind Capacity Additions by Region

Source: Annual Market Update 2013, Global Wind Energy Council,

8
 Wind Capacity Additions by Region

Source: Annual Market Update 2022, Global Wind Energy Council, 9

 Top 10 Countries - Installed Wind
Capacity (as of the end of 2013)

Source: Annual Market Update 2013, Global Wind Energy Council,

10
 Top 10 Countries - Installed Wind
Capacity (as of the end of 2020)

Source: Annual Market Update 2021, Global Wind Energy Council,

11
Types of Wind Turbines
• “Windmill”- used to grind grain into flour or pump
water
• Many different names –
– “wind-driven generator”,
– “wind generator”, “wind turbine”,
– “wind-turbine generator (WTG)”, “
– wind energy conversion system (WECS)”
• Can be horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) or
vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT)
• Groups of wind turbines are located in what is
called either a “wind farm” or a “wind park”
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Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

A Savonius Turbine

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Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
• Darrieus rotor - the only vertical axis machine with
any commercial success
• Wind hitting the vertical blades, called aerofoils,
generates lift to create rotation
• No yaw (rotation about vertical axis)
control needed to keep them facing
into the wind
• Heavy machinery is located on the
ground
• Blades are closer to ground where
wind speeds are lower
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Darrieus_wind_turbine 14
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
• “Downwind” HAWT – a turbine with the blades
behind (downwind from) the tower
• No yaw control needed- they naturally orient
themselves in line with the wind
• Shadowing effect – when a blade swings behind the
tower, the wind it encounters is briefly reduced and
the blade flexes

15
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
• “Upwind” HAWT – blades are in front of (upwind
of) the tower
• Most modern wind turbines are this type
• Blades are “upwind” of the tower
• Require somewhat complex yaw control to keep
them facing into the wind
– Need to search for the wind to start turning
• Operate more smoothly and deliver more power
• Largest turbines are on the order of 6 MW with 1.5
MW a quite common design

16
17
Wind Turbine Sizes

A 747
wing
span is
about
60m;
The
Washing-
ton mon-
ument is
169m
high
http://www.bpwtag.ca/Bruce%20Peninsula%20Wind%20Turbine%20Sizes%202013.jpg 18
Power in the Wind

• Consider the kinetic energy of a “packet” of air with

mass m moving at velocity v
1 2
KE  mv
2
• Divide by time and get power
1  m passing though A  2
Power through area A   v
2 t 
• The mass flow rate is (r is air density)
m passing though A
m = =  Av
t
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Power in the Wind

Combining previous equations,

1
Power through area A    Av  v 2

2
1
PW   Av3 Power in the wind
2

PW (Watts) = power in the wind

ρ (kg/m3)= air density (1.225kg/m3 at 15˚C and 1 atm)
A (m2)= the cross-sectional area that wind passes through
v (m/s)= wind speed normal to A (1 m/s = 2.237 mph)
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 Power in the Wind (for reference solar
is about 600 w/m^2 in summer)
• Power increases with
the cube of wind speed
• Doubling the wind
speed increases the
power by eight
• Energy in 1 hour of 20
mph winds is the same
as energy in 8 hours of
10 mph winds
• Nonlinear, so we cannot
use average wind speed
21
Power in the Wind

1
PW   Av3
2
• Power in the wind is also proportional to A
• For a conventional HAWT, A = (π/4)D2, so wind
power is proportional to the blade diameter squared
• Cost is somewhat proportional to blade diameter
• This explains why larger wind turbines are more
cost effective (plus, as we shall see, because they
are higher, the winds are stronger)

22
 Example: Energy in 1 m2 of Wind
1
Energy   Av 3 t
2
• 100 hours of 6 m/s winds
1
Energy  1.225 kg/m  (1m ) 6 m/s  100 h=13,230 Wh
3 2 3

2
• 50 hours of 3 m/s winds and 50 hours of 9 m/s winds -
*the average wind speed is 6 m/s
1
Energy (3 m/s)  1.225 kg/m  (1m ) 3 m/s  50 h=827 Wh
3 2 3

2
1
Energy (9 m/s)  1.225 kg/m  (1m ) 9 m/s  50 h=22,326 Wh
3 2 3

2
Don’t use average wind total = 23,153 Wh
speed! 23
 Impact of Elevation and Earth’s
Roughness on Wind speed
• Since power increases with the cube of wind speed,
we can expect a significant economic impact from
even a moderate increase in wind speed
• There is a lot of friction in the first few hundred
meters above ground – smooth surfaces (like water)
are better
• Wind speeds are greater at higher elevations – tall
towers are better
• Forests and buildings slow the wind down a lot

24
Characterization of Elevation and
Earth’s Roughness on Wind Speed

v  H 
 
v0  H 0 

• α = friction coefficient
• v = wind speed at height H
• v0 = wind speed at height H0 (H0 is usually 10 m)
• Typical value of α in open terrain is 1/7
• For a large city, α = 0.4; for small town, α = 0.3, for
high crops, , α = 0.2, for calm water or hard
ground, α = 0.1
25
 Impact of Elevation and Earth’s
Roughness on Wind speed
• Alternative formulation (used in Europe)
v ln( H / l )

v0 ln( H 0 / l )

• l is the “roughness length”

• Note that both equations are just approximations of
the variation in wind speed due to elevation and
roughness– the best thing is to have actual
measurements

26
 Impact of Elevation and Earth’s
Roughness on Power in the Wind
• Combining earlier equations we get
3 3
P v  H 
   = 
P0  v0   H 0 

• The other constants in the power in the wind

equation are the same, so they just cancel:
1
P
 Av3
 2
P0 1  Av 3
0
2
27
 Impact of Elevation and Earth’s
Roughness on Windspeed

For a small town, wind speed at 100 m is twice that at 10 m

Areas with smoother surfaces have less variation with height
28
Example Rotor Stress
• Wind turbine with hub at 50-m and a 30-m diameter
rotor, α = 0.2
• Find the ratio of power in the
wind at highest point to lowest
point
30.2
P  65 
  = 1.45
P0  35 
• Power in the wind at the top of
the blades is 45% higher!
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 Maximum Rotor Efficiency
• Power contained by the wind is given by
1
PW   Av3
2

𝑉∞ 𝑉2
𝑣
+¿ ¿
𝑃∞ 𝑃 𝑃
−
𝑃∞

30
Maximum Rotor Efficiency
• Constraint on the ability of a wind turbine to
convert kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical
power
• Think about wind passing though a turbine- it slows
down and the pressure is reduced so it expands

31
Maximum Rotor Efficiency
• Two extreme cases, and neither makes sense-
– Downwind velocity is zero – turbine extracted all of the
power
– Downwind velocity is the same as the upwind velocity –
turbine extracted no power

• Albert Betz 1919 - There must be some ideal

slowing of the wind so that the turbine extracts the
maximum power

32
Power Extracted by The Blades

1
Pb  m  v 2  vd 2 
2
• ṁ = mass flow rate of air within stream tube
• v = upwind undisturbed wind speed
• vd = downwind wind speed

• From the difference in kinetic energy between

upwind and downwind air flows

33
Determining Mass Flow Rate
• Easiest to determine at the plane of the rotor
because we know the cross sectional area A
• Then, the mass flow rate is
m   Avb

• The velocity through the rotor vb is the average of

upwind velocity v and downwind velocity vd
Can be proved using Bernaulli’s equation
v  vd  v  vd 
vb = m   A  
2  2 
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Power Extracted by the Blades
• Then
1  v  vd  2
Pb   A     d 
2
v v
2  2 
• Define
vd
 , will be less than 1.0
v
• Then substituting for vd to get the power extracted

1  v  v  2
Pb   A      v 
2 2
v
2  2 
35
Power Extracted by the Blades

1  v  v  2
Pb   A      v 
2 2
v
2  2 
 v  v  2   
3 2 3 3 3 3
v v v v
 v   v  =
2 2
 - + -
 2  2 2 2 2
v3
= 1    - 2 1   
2
v3
= 1    1   2 
2 
1 3 1
Pb   Av  1    1   2 
2 2
PW = Power in the wind CP = Rotor efficiency 36
Maximum Rotor Efficiency
• Find the wind speed ratio λ that maximizes the rotor
efficiency, CP
• From the previous slide
1 1  2
  3
CP  1    1   2  = - + -
2 2 2 2 2
Set the derivative of rotor efficiency to zero and solve for λ:

CP
=-2  1  3 2  0

CP
=3 2  2  1  0 1
 
CP 3
= 3  1   1  0 maximizes rotor efficiency
 37
Maximum Rotor Efficiency

• Plug the optimal value for λ back into CP to find the

maximum rotor efficiency:
1  1   1   16
C P   1    1  2   =  59.3%
2  3   3   27

• The maximum efficiency of 59.3% occurs when

air is slowed to 1/3 of its upstream rate
• Called the “Betz efficiency” or “Betz’ law”

38
Maximum Rotor Efficiency

Rotor efficiency
CP vs. wind
speed ratio λ.
Recall λ is the ratio
between the
downstream
wind velocity
and the upstream
velocity
Down wind/ up wind V2/V∞

39
Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)
• Efficiency is a function of how fast the rotor turns
• Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR) is the speed of the outer tip
of the blade divided by wind speed
Rotor tip speed v
Tip-Speed-Ratio (TSR)=  =
Wind speed V
 r 2 / 60r rpm   D
= = 
V V 60V
• D = rotor diameter (m)
• V = upwind undisturbed wind speed (m/s)
• rpm = rotor speed, (revolutions/min)
• One meter per second = 2.24 miles per hour
40
Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)
• TSR for various rotor
types
• If blade turns too slow
then wind passes
through without hitting
blade; too fast
results in turbulence
• Rotors with fewer
blades reach their
maximum efficiency at A higher TSR is needed
higher tip-speed ratios when there are fewer blades
41
Example
• 40-m wind turbine, three-blades, 600 kW, wind speed
is 14 m/s, air density is 1.225 kg/m3
a. Find the rpm of the rotor if it operates at a TSR of 4.0
b. Find the tip speed of the rotor
c. What gear ratio is needed to match the rotor speed to
the generator speed if the generator must turn at 1800
rpm?
d. What is the efficiency of the wind turbine under these
conditions?
Rotor tip speed rpm   D
Tip-Speed-Ratio (TSR)  =
Wind speed 60v
42
Example

a. Find the rpm of the rotor if it operates at a TSR of

4.0

Tip-Speed-Ratio (TSR)  60v

rpm 
D
4.0  60sec/min 14m/s
rpm  = 26.7 rev/min
  40m/rev
We can also express this as seconds per revolution:
26.7 rev/min
rpm  = 0.445 rev/sec or 2.24 sec/rev
60 sec/min
43
Example

b. Tip speed
rpm   D
Rotor tip speed=
60 sec/min
Rotor tip speed = (rev/sec)   D
Rotor tip speed = 0.445 rev/sec   40 m/rev = 55.92 m/s
c. Gear Ratio

Generator rpm 1800

Gear Ratio = = = 67.4
Rotor rpm 26.7

44
Example

d. Efficiency of the complete wind turbine (blades,

gear box, generator) under these conditions

1 1  
PW   Av = 1.225    402 143  2112 kW
3

2 2 4 
Overall efficiency:
600 kW
  28.4%
2112 kW

45
Converting Wind into Electric Energy
• Design challenge is to convert rotating mechanical
energy into electrical energy
– This is, of course, commonly done in most power plants.
But the added challenges with wind turbines are 1) the shaft
is often rotating a variable speed [because of changes in the
wind speed], and 2) the rate of rotation is relatively slow
(dozens of rpm)
• Early wind turbines used a near fixed speed design,
which allowed use of simple and well proven
induction generators, but gave up aerodynamic
efficiency. Modern turbines tend to use a variable
speed design to keep tip-to-speed ratio near optimal
46
 Electric Machines
• Electric machines can usually function as either a
motor or as a generator
• Three main types of electric machines
– DC machines: Advantage is they can directly operate at
variable speed. For grid application the disadvantage is they
produce a dc output. Used for small wind turbines.
– AC synchronous machines
 Operate at fixed speed. Used extensively for traditional power
generation. The fixed speed had been a disadvantage for wind.
– AC induction machines
 Very rugged and allow some speed variation but usually not a lot for
efficient operation.

47
Types of Wind Turbines by Machine
• From an electric point of view there are four main
types of large-scale wind turbines (IEEE naming
convention)
– Type 1: Induction generator with fixed rotor resistance
– Type 2: Induction generators with variable rotor resistance
– Type 3: Doubly-fed induction generators
– Type 4: Full converter generators which main use either a
synchronous generator or an induction generator
• Most new wind turbines are either Type 3 or Type 4
• In Europe these are sometimes called Types A, B, C, D
respectively.
48
Wind Generator Types

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