Composting U4 AKTU 1 of 2

INDERPRASTHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
GHAZIABAD
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
LECTURE SERIES ON
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
(RCE084)
4th Year
UNIT 4 (Part 1 of 2)
COMPOSTING
2
COURSE
CONTENT
• Composting Its Recycling…
• Types of composting
• Process description
• Aerobic Composting
• Process description
• Anaerobic Composting
LECTURE SERIES ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT, BTECH, 4TH YEAR ,CIVIL, PROF. REKHA SINGH/ PROF.ANKIT RAI, IPEC
3
COMPOSTIN
G
Using the natural process of decay to
change organic wastes into a valuable
humus-like material called compost
Compost
4
Biological conversion of MSW
• With the exception of plastic, rubber and leather components, the organic
fraction of MSW (OFMSW) is composed of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
cellulose, lignin and ash.
• The two common biological processes used to transform these organic
materials into gaseous, liquid and solid conversion products are;
-Aerobic Composting
-Anaerobic Digestion (AD)
Material required for Composting
Farm refuses Animal dung Town refuse
• Weeds • Cow dung • Night soil
• Stubbles bhusa • Buffalo dung • Street refuse
• Crop residues • Poultry dung • Municipal fuse
• Remnents of
fodder
• Hedge clipping
5
Comparison of composting Aerobic and AD
6
General objectives of composting
• To transform the biodegradable organic materials into a

biologically stable product and reduce the volume of waste
• To destroy pathogens, insect eggs and other unwanted organisms
and weed seeds that may be present in MSW
• To retain the maximum nutrient (nitrogen, phophorus and
potassium) content, and
• To produce a product that can be used to support plant growth
and as a soil amendment.
7
Properties of compost
The typical properties of compost are;

•A brown to very dark brown color
•A low carbon-nitrogen (C/N) ratio
•A continually changing nature due to activities of mo’s
•A high capacity for cation exchange and water absorption
When added to soil, compost has been found to lighten heavy soils,
to improve the texture of light sandy soils and to increase the water
retention capacity of most soils.
8
COMPOSTING
Composting -Speeding up the natural decay process

A compost pile or bin
allows you to control
• Air (oxygen)
• Water
• Carbon and Nitrogen
• Temperature
By managing these factors you can speed up the

otherwise slow natural decay process
9
Benefits of compost
Promotes soil health Plant nutrients

• Quickest way to change soil structure • Compost is not a fertilizer, but does
• Loosens heavy clay soils contain plant nutrients
• Improves soil tilth and friability • Nitrogen and phosphorus are mostly
• Improves soil drainage in organic forms
• Retains moisture in all soils • Released slowly to plants
• Suppresses soil-borne plant pathogens • Not readily leached from the
(diseases) topsoil
• Compost contains over 40 trace
• Supplies organic matter to soil
nutrients that are essential for plant
• Attracts earthworms growth
• Stimulates beneficial soil
microorganisms
• Increases soil water holding capacity
• Increases soil nutrient retention
10
TYPES OF COMPOSTING methods in India
Composting Methods
Generally composting can be carried out in seven techniques in

india.:
1. Bangalore Method
2. Indore Method
3. Nadep Method
4. Nadep Phospho compost
5. Coimbatore method
6. Windrow composting
7. Vermicompost
11
Composting In India
These are 3 important types of composting in india
Methods of preparation
Indore Method
Banglore
This Indore method
Method Nadep Method
was developed by A.
Howard and Y.D. Wad This method was This method was, first
at the institute of plant worked out by L.N demonstrated by J.N.
industry that is in Acharya at Indian Krishi Vidyalaya at
Indore, India. So, that institute of science, Indore
is why this method is Bangalore
known as Indore
method
12
1. Banglore Method
• This is an anaerobic decomposition and is comparatively slow but markedly less wasteful.
Also called Hot Fermentation Mechanism of composting or the Bangalore
method.
• It has been adopted to solve effectively the problems of safe disposal of night soil and
producing high quality compost.
• Compost production points are located just on the outskirts of city for convenient
transport of night soil and other refuse to the pits.
• The compost depot should accommodate about 200 trenches with 1 to 5 m spacing
between the trenches. Roads of suitable width are provided between rows for the
convenience to approach and unload the materials inside the trenches.
• City wastes are dumped into the trenches to make a layer of 15cm. Then night soil is
discharged over this and spread to a layer of about 5cm. The trench is filled with town
waste and night soil in alternate layers, until it reaches to 15 cm above the ground level,
with a final layer of town refuse on the top.
• It is made dome shape and covered with a thin layer of soil to prevent breeding of flies
and moisture loss. Sewage water may be sprayed over the layer of refuse.
• This system provides a method of disposal of various kinds of waste including slaughter
house waste, sewage, sludge etc. This heterogeneous mass is allowed to remain as such
without turning and watering for about 3 to 4 months.
13
Banglore Method
• The material is allowed to decompose for 4 to 6 months after which the stabilised material is taken
out and used as compost.
• High temperature will develop in the lower layers. As the material does not receive turning,
homogenous decomposition of compost does not take place.
• Since there is no turning and watering, this method is suitable to the areas where water and labour
availability is scarce.
• In the absence of pits and trenches, the town refuse can be composted in above ground heaps of 1
m width, 1 m height and of convenient length with refused materials and night soil placed in
alternate layers.
• The composted material obtained by this method will contain 1.5 % nitrogen, 1.0 % phosphorus
and 1.5 % potassium.
Banglore
method
14
Advantages and Limitations
• In this method, night soil handling is great problem. Sometimes,

it is unhygienic
• for human and animals.
• Negligent handling can cause skin diseases.
• Under anaerobic decomposition, the loss of nitrogen is relatively
lower than aerobic decomposition.
15
Indore Method
• In this method, waste materials such as plant residues, animal wastes,

weeds, street refuse and other organic wastes can be composted.
• The waste materials are cut into small pieces and spread in layers of 10-15 cm
thickness either in pits or in heaps of 1 m wide, 1 m deep and of convenient
length.
• Properly moistened with cow dung using earth. To ensure 50 % moisture
sufficient water should be sprinkled to wet the composting.
• This method of composting in pits involves filling of alternate layers of similar
thickness as in Bangalore method.
• To ensure aerobic condition the material is periodically turned 3 to 4 times
and covered with a layer of 2 to 3 cm soil.
• For starting the turning operation, the first turn is manually given using long
handled rakes 4 to 7 days after filling.
• The second turn is given after 5 to 10 more days. Further turning is normally
not required and the compost is ready in 2 to 4 weeks.
• In the urban areas, due to extensive provision of water carriage system of
sanitation, night soil is not available.
16
Indore method
• Under the aerobic process of decomposition 40 to 50 % organic matter and
nitrogen are lost at initial stage.
• Involves considerable labour in preparing heap and periodic turning
and becomes labour intensive and impracticable when large quantities of
materials have to be processed.
• The site of composting should be at the high level to avoid rain water
stagnation. The average composition of compost prepared by Indore method
has been found to have 0.8 % nitrogen, 0.3% phosphorus and 1.5 % potassium
Indore method
17
Advantages and Limitations
• The Indore process is not the best method due to the relatively
high labour requirement and Inadequate protection from rain,
sun and wind.
• Loss of nutrients is rapid.
• Upper portion of heap gradually dries as a result of poor
decomposition
18
NADEP Method
• This method facilitates a lot of composting through minimum use

of cattle dung.
• The decomposition process takes place aerobically
• The tank should be located near the cattle shed or farm site
• Tank should be 10 feet x 6 feet x 3 feet in size and are prepared
within 9 inch thick wall.
• Proper blocks and holes of 7 inch should be left on all the 4 sides
of the tank valve for the circulation of air.
• Plastering of inner wall and floor of the tank should be done by
mixing of dung and mud.
• Farm residues will be used as an important raw material for this
Nadep compost. So, we require 1400 to 1500 kg of farm residue,
cattle dung of 90 to 100 kg, dry sieved soil of 1750 kg and then
water in 1500 to 2000 litre.
19
NADEP method: First filling Process
• Slurry made of cow dung and water should be sprinkled on the

floor and the walls of the tank and the filling of the tanks follows
this following steps.
• First layer: Plant residue are spread evenly in layer upto 6
inches (10-100 kg) in tank.
• Second layer:4-5 kg cattle dung of biogas slurry in 125 to 150
litres of water should be apply on the first layer.
• Third layer: 50-60 Kg sieved soil added on the second
layer of tank.
• In this way the tank is filled layer by layer upto 1.5 feet above the
brick level of tank. Filled tank should be covered and sealed by 3
inch layer of soil (300-400 Kg). It should also be pasted with a
mixture of dung and soil.
20
NADEP method: second filling process
• At this stage, the process of the first filling is repeated again

and sealed with paste of mud and dung.
• After 20 days the plant residues contracts and goes down in the
tank by 20 to 25 inches,
• Periodically the paste of cattle dung and water should be
sprinkled to maintain the 15 to 20 percent of the moisture.
21
Maintenance
• After 15-30 days of filling the organic biomass in the tank gets automatically
pressed down to 2 ft.
• The tank is refilled by giving 2-3 layers over it and is resealed.
• After this filling the tank is not disturbed for 3 months except that it is
moistened at intervals of every 6-15 days.
• The entire tank is covered with a thatched roof to prevent excessive
evaporation of moisture.
• Under no circumstances should any cracks be allowed to develop. If they do,
they should be promptly filled up with slurry.
• Benefits
Reduced cash expenses on chemical fertilizer, improved soil fertility, increased
crop yield.
• Supports organic crop production, reduced dependence on outside inputs.
• From each NADEP tank approximately 2.5 tons of compost is prepared with in
90-120 days.
• The use of compost reduced the need for mineral fertilizer thus reducing
production costs and outside dependence.
22
Coimbatore method
• Composting is done in pits of different sizes depending on the

waste material
• available.
• A layer of waste materials is first laid in the pit.
• It is moistened with a suspension of 5-10 kg cow dung in 2.5 to
5.0 I of water and 0.5 to 1.0 kg fine bone meal sprinkled over it
uniformly.
• Similar layers are laid one over the other till the material rises
0.75 m above the ground level. It is finally plastered with wet mud
and left undisturbed for 8 to 10 weeks
• Plaster is then removed, material moistened with water, given a
turning and made into a rectangular heap under a shade.
• It is left undisturbed till its use
23
Windrow composting
• A high-rate windrow composting system employs rows typically 1-2 m high by

3-4 m wide.
• Before the windrows are formed organic material is processes by shredding
and screening it to approximately 25-75 mm and the moisture content is
adjusted to 50-60%.
• Windrows are turned up to twice per week while temperature is maintained at
or slightly above 55 oC.
• Complete composting can be accomplished in 3-4 weeks.
• Afterwards, the compost is allowed to cure for an additional 3-4 weeks without
turning.
24
Windrow composting
25
Vermicompost
Introduction
Vermicompost or worm compost is the most preferred manure in organic
farming. It is the final product obtained after breakdown of organic matter by
earthworm.
The most common earthworm species recommended for vermicomposting are
Eisenia foetida and Lumbricus rubellus.
Earthworms eat organic materials, pass it through its digestive system and excrete
in the form of small pellets called Vermicompost.
It is rich in Nitrogen(N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K),Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu),
Calcium (Ca),Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S), Cobalt (Co), Boron (B), Vitamins and
growth promoting hormones.
The municipal waste, non toxic solid and liquid waste of the industries and house
hold garbage can also be converted into vermicompost. Worms not only convert
garbage into valuable manure but also keep the environment healthy. The
conversion of organic wastes by earthworms into compost and their (worm)
multiplication are simple process and can be easily handled by the farmers.
26
Vermicomposting
Properties
• Very finally structured, uniform stable and aggregated particles of
humidified organic material.
• Excellent porosity, aeration and water holding capacity
• Rich in available plant nutrients and hormones, enzymes and
microbial populations.
• Mostly pathogen free :
Plant and human pathogens are killed during the passage of
the earth worm gut
• Earth like soil building substances that forms a building a
beneficial growing environment within the in the for plant roots
• Vermicompost are valuable and marketable products.
27
Benefits
• It contains NPK (0.8 : 1.1 : 0.5%).

• It contains micronutrients (Mg, Fe, Bo, Mo, Zn), growth
regulators and beneficial MO.
• It increases water holding capacity WHC of soil.
• It increases aeration in soil.
• Decreases salinity and increases availability of nutrients.
• Reduces soil erosion.
• Decreases cost of cultivation.
• Reduction in incidence of diseases and pests.
• Increases yield.
• Odour free.
28
Nutrient composition
29
Methods of preparation
1. Indoor (small scale production)

2. Outdoor (large scale production)
• Pit system
• Heap system
• Brick system
• Kadapa slab method
30
Method of preparation
• Pit size: 10 m x 1 m x 0.3 m
• In irrigated area and heavy rainfall areas – above ground.
• Drench with chloropyriphos @ 2 ml/lit of H2O. Leave for one
week and then go for filling the pit in the following manner.
Fig : Vermicompost Pit
31
Preparation
• 1st layer- bedding material of 1inch thick with soft leaves

• 2nd layer- 9inch thick organic residues layer finely
chopped materials
• 3rd layer- Dung + water equal mixture of 2inches layer
• Continue the layers up to ground level.
• Regular watering should be done.
32
Procedure: contd
• At the day of 24th, 4000 worms are introduced in to the pit.(1m²- 2000 worms)
The temperature at the beginning may reach up to 66˚C. Hence introduction of
the earthworms should be done after 2-3 weeks. After the heap cools down, holes
should be dug and 50-100 earthworms should be dropped in each hole
• After a few days earthworms will begin consuming the organic matter and leave
rich castings behind.
Harvesting of the vermicompost from the pit:
• Stop watering before 1 week of harvest.
• All the worms spread across the pit come in closer and form balls in 2 to 3
locations in side the pit.
• Heap the compost by removing the balls.
• Then the material is sieved in 2mm sieve, the material that passed through the
sieve is called vermicompost.
• Store the vermicompost in polythene bags.
33
Environmental requirements
Temperature
• One of the important factor for survival and growth of
microorganisms
• Optimum growth condition occurs within a fairy narrow range
• Can survive within much broader limits
• Growth rates double with approximately every 10 degree-C increase until
the optimum temperature is reached.
Some typical temperature ranges for various bacteria

Temperature, degree-C
Type Range Optimum
Psychrophilic -10 – 30 15
Mesophilic 20 – 50 35
Thermophilic 45 – 75 55
34
Types of biological transformations
Aerobic process
Organic matter + O2 + Nutrients 

new cells + resistant organic matter + CO2 + H2O
+ NH3 + SO42- + ... + heat
Anaerobic process
Organic matter + H2O + Nutrients 

new cells + resistant organic matter + CO2 + CH4
+ NH3 + H2S + heat
35
Biological process selection
Comparison of aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion

processes for processing organic fraction of MSW
Characteristic Aerobic processes Anaerobic processes
Energy use Net energy user Net energy producer
End products Humus, CO2, H2O Sludge, CO2, CH4
Volume reduction up to 50% up to 50%
Processing time 20 to 30 days 20 to 40 days
Primary goal Volume reduction Energy production
Secondary goal Compost production Volume reduction
Waste stabilization
Operation Relatively simple Relatively complex
36
Aerobic composting
Aerobic composting
• Most commonly used biological process
• Application to yard waste, separated MSW, commingled MSW,
and co-composting with wastewater sludge
Process description
3 processes:
• Preprocessing: removing contaminants, adjusting
moisture content, C/N ratio
• Aerobic decomposition
• Product preparation and marketing: may include fine
grinding, screening, air classification, blending with
various additives, granulation, bagging, storage, shipping.
37
Phases of Composting
• Initial decomposition is carried out by mesophilic microorganisms, which rapidly
break down the soluble, readily degradable compounds.
• As the temperature rises above about 40°C, the mesophilic are replaced by
thermophilic, At temperatures of 55°C and above, many microorganisms that are
human or plant pathogens are destroyed.
• During the thermophilic phase, high temperatures accelerate the breakdown of
proteins, fats, and complex carboydrates like cellulose and hemicellulose, the major
structural molecules in plants.
• Temperature gradually decreases and
Mesophilic microorganisms once again take
over for the final phase of "curing" or
maturation of the remaining organic matter.
38
Important design and operational considerations
Design and operational considerations

• Particle size
• Carbon to Nitrogen ratio (C/N ratio)
• Blending and seeding
• moisture content
• Mixing/turning
• Temperature
• Control of pathogens
• Air requirements
• pH control
• Degree of decomposition
• Land requirement
39
Aerobic composting
Important process variables

particle size and its distribution, seeding and mixing requirements, the
required mixing/turning schedule, total oxygen requirements, moisture
content, temperature and its control, carbon-nitrogen ratio, pH, degree of
decomposition, respiratory quotient (RQ), and control of pathogens
Composting techniques
• Agitated: the material to be composted is agitated periodically to introduce
oxygen, to control the temperature, and to mix the material to obtain a
more uniform product.
• Static: the material to be composted remains static and air is blown
through the composting material.
40
Aerobic composting
• Particle size
influences the bulk density, internal frictions and flow characteristics
Reduction of particle size increase the biochemical reaction rate
should be between 25 and 75 mm
• C/N ratio
Initial carbon to nitrogen ratios between 25 and 50.
lower ratio: Release or inhibition of ammonia
higher ratio: lack of nitrogen as a nutrient.
• Blending and seeding
-Blending based on C/N ratio and moisture content
-Seeding involves the addition of a volume of microbial culture sufficiently large to --
-Effect the decomposition of the receiving material at a faster rate
• Moisture content
should be between 50 and 60
• Mixing/turning
to prevent drying, caking and air channeling
to achieve more uniform distribution of nutrients and microorganisms
41
Aerobic composting
Temperature
-50 to 55 degree C for first few days, 55 to 60 degree C in the remainder of the
active composting periodcontrolled by
-airflow
-turning frequency
42
Aerobic composting
• Issues in the implementation of composting facilities

• Odor
• every existing facility has had an odor event
• (facility siting, process design and biological odor management are of
critical importance
• Presence of pathogens
• Presence of heavy metals

• Contamination in shredding process
• Definition of what constitutes an acceptable compost
43
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a process of controlled decomposition of biodegradable

materials under controlled anaerobic conditions where free oxygen is absent, at
temperatures suitable for naturally occurring mesophilic or thermophilic
anaerobic phase and facultative bacteria species that convert degradable organic
matter into biogas and digestate.
Anaerobic Composting needs to take place in a warmed, sealed airless

container, called the digester, which creates the ideal conditions for the bacteria
to grow and ferment the organic material in the oxygen free conditions. We have
seen that grass cutting left in a plastic bag in the garden will begin to decompose
anaerobically very quickly, creating a slimy mass emitting strong odours, this is
“anaerobic composting”. The “anaerobic digester” used for composting can be any
type of air-tight container, barrel or bucket with a lid, or as simple as a plastic bag.
There are basically two types of anaerobic digesters: Dry Digesters and Wet
Digesters.
44
Anaerobic And Aerobic Composting
45
Dry Anaerobic Digesters
• As its name suggests, uses no additional water or liquids to promote the
biological process.
• Compostable materials that contain sufficient water content such as cut grass,
fleshy plants and stems, or food waste are finely chopped and shredded, sealed
in the their respective air tight containers and left for several weeks or months
to naturally decompose.
The decomposition time of the solid waste feedstock as well as the quantity of
biogas produced is considerably affected by the type of waste materials used and
the external temperature during fermentation. When selecting solid wastes for
dry anaerobic digestion, the carbon to nitrogen ratio, C/N ratio and the
biodegradability of the feedstock materials have to be carefully considered. If you
do not have an anaerobic composter, an alternative approach to dry anaerobic
composting is to bury it underground. This type of passive anaerobic composting
process, called pit composting, seals the solid feedstock waste from exposure to
the air and oxygen by burying underground. This is the simplest way to compost,
if you do not mind digging. Basically, a dug out pit or trench in the ground is filled
and tightly compressed with the organic matter and sealed from the surrounding
air by a layer of top soil.
46
Dry Anaerobic Digesters
The anaerobic de-composting occurs underground and doesn’t produce compost

to spread around the garden, but will improve the soil in that spot. Also with pit
composting, there are no sightly compost heaps, containers or fermentation
barrels visible above ground. Another advantage of this type of anaerobic
composting is that the pit or trench can be dug around the roots of trees, bushes
and other such larger garden plants improving their soil conditions to help
develop stronger roots.
As anaerobic organisms decompose the solid waste at a slower rate than their
aerobic counterparts, sometimes it can be difficult to monitor their progress
without digging out the pit or opening the containers to look allowing oxygen to
enter. However, once complete, the dry anaerobic compost should be odour free
with little or no liquid effluent produced. Also anaerobically digested manures
retain most of their nutrient and fertiliser value which is good for the growing
plants.
47
Wet Anaerobic Digesters
On the other hand use animal and poultry manures, slurries, effluent’s and green
organic materials mixed with water as a form of liquid composting. The water
content of the liquid feedstock is very high at more than 80% of the volume. Wet
Anaerobic Composting converts liquid organic waste into a rich source of
renewable energy in the form of “Biogas”. This biogas contains methane and
carbon dioxide which can be used for energy generation directly, as well as a
stable semi-solid digested material called the “digestate”.
This digestate can be separated into a liquid compost, affectionately called

“compost tea” which can be used as a liquid fertiliser high in water soluble
nutrients and a nutrient rich solid fraction as a soil conditioner. Liquid
composting and liquid anaerobic fertilisers can be cheaply made at home by using
a standard watering can as a wet anaerobic digester.
48
Wet Anaerobic Digesters
Another method of creating anaerobic compost involves keeping the compost

submerged under water. This method does not have to be sealed against the
ingress of oxygen but a large tank, plastic pool or a shallow pit is required to hold
the compost which is then filled with water. As the compost decomposes, the
odours are trapped in the water. This form of passive composting takes a lot
longer to complete as the water temperature is generally cold and the micro-
organisms do not have as high a metabolism.
One of the main disadvantages of wet anaerobic composting by the direct use of
animal manures and sludge’s, is the risk of plant and human contamination by
pathogens such as ecoli and salmonella. Heating of the liquids and/or solids
produced above 55oC would destroy these pathogens but an additional energy
resource is required to do this.
49
Summary of Anaerobic Composting
• Easier and less labour intensive than conventional aerobic composting,

• it is smellier, and takes a lot longer to produce usable compost compared to
aerobic composting as the different types of microbes and organisms work at a
much slower rate due mainly to the colder conditions.
• Produces more usable compost and liquid fertiliser per volume of original
composting ingredients compared to the conventional aerobic compost heap.
• Contains higher levels of ammonium, since anaerobic microbes tend to use
less nitrogen than aerobic microbes.
• The process of composting anaerobically produces a biogas (e.g. methane and
carbon dioxide), bi-product which can be captured and used as an alternative
energy or fuel.
• Decomposition of the organic materials can lead to very unpleasant odours due
to the release of sulphur containing compounds such as hydrogen sulphide,
(indicate that the decomposition process is working properly)
Thank
You !
Contact on rekha.singh@ipec.org.in for any query or suggestion.

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INDERPRASTHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

• Composting Its Recycling…

• To transform the biodegradable organic materials into a

The typical properties of compost are;

Composting -Speeding up the natural decay process

By managing these factors you can speed up the

Promotes soil health Plant nutrients

Generally composting can be carried out in seven techniques in

These are 3 important types of composting in india

• In this method, night soil handling is great problem. Sometimes,

• In this method, waste materials such as plant residues, animal wastes,

• This method facilitates a lot of composting through minimum use

• Slurry made of cow dung and water should be sprinkled on the

• At this stage, the process of the first filling is repeated again

• Composting is done in pits of different sizes depending on the

• A high-rate windrow composting system employs rows typically 1-2 m high by

• It contains NPK (0.8 : 1.1 : 0.5%).

1. Indoor (small scale production)

Fig : Vermicompost Pit

• 1st layer- bedding material of 1inch thick with soft leaves

Some typical temperature ranges for various bacteria

Organic matter + O2 + Nutrients 

Organic matter + H2O + Nutrients 

Comparison of aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion

Design and operational considerations

Important process variables

• Issues in the implementation of composting facilities

• Presence of heavy metals

• Definition of what constitutes an acceptable compost

Anaerobic digestion is a process of controlled decomposition of biodegradable

Anaerobic Composting needs to take place in a warmed, sealed airless

The anaerobic de-composting occurs underground and doesn’t produce compost

This digestate can be separated into a liquid compost, affectionately called

Another method of creating anaerobic compost involves keeping the compost

• Easier and less labour intensive than conventional aerobic composting,

Contact on rekha.singh@ipec.org.in for any query or suggestion.

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