1

ROBOT
KINEMATICS.
DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
 Types of Robot 2
 most common types of robots are:-

Cobots

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs),

Autonomous mobile robots (AMRs)

Industrial Robots Humanoids Hybrids

Articulated robots:- 3

 Articulated robots are highly versatile and efficient robots that have the ability to
mimic human arm movements for various industrial and commercial applications.

•Articulated means having two or more sections(Links)

connected by a flexible joint.
Types of Industrial Robots 4

Articulated Robots
Cartesian.

Delta.
Polar SCARA Robots
Robot Degree of Freedom 5

 What is a degree of Freedom(DOF)?

 as it relates to robotic arms, DOF is an independent joint that can provide freedom
of movement for the manipulator, either in a rotational or translational (linear)
sense.

1 DOF 2 DOF 3 DOF

Robot kinematics 6

1. Robotic kinematics refers to the geometry and movement of robotic mechanisms.

 Kinematics is the study of the motion of mechanical points, bodies and systems without
consideration of their associated physical properties and the forces acting on them.

2. Goals of Robot kinematics is to;-

 Use robotics kinematics terms to explain real world situations.
 Express a point in one coordinate frame in a different coordinate frame.
 Represent complex translations and rotations using a homogenous transformation matrix.
 Determine the position and orientation of an end effectors given link and joint
information.
Why we study robot kinematics:- 7

 Because Kinematics can yield very accurate calculations in many problems, such
as positioning a gripper at a place in space, designing a mechanism that can move
a tool from point A to point B, or predicting whether a robot's motion would
collide with obstacles.

 Also we study robot kinematics for the purpose of robot control mathematics
modeling.
Robot configuration 8

 Reference Frame: Static coordinate system from which translations and rotations
are based.

 Link: Single rigid body.

 Joint: Connection between links.

 Constraints: Limitations on movement.

Grübler’s Formula to find degrees of 9

freedom
 Basic Idea: DOF of mechanism = Link DOFs – Joint Constraints

 Grübler’s Formula to find degrees of freedom

 M is the degrees of freedom

 n is the number of moving links
 j is the number of joints
 f_i is the degrees of freedom of the ith joint
Types of robot Joints-lower pairs 10
Prismatic Joint
Revolute Joint 1 DOF (linear)
1 DOF ( Variable -?)

Spherical Joint
3 DOF
Types of robot Joints-Higher pairs 11

Gears
1 DOF

Cam and Follower

1 DOF (linear)
We are interested in two kinematics topics 12

1. Forward Kinematics (angles to position)

 What you are given: The length of each link The angle of each joint What you can
find: The position of any point(i.e. it’s (x, y, z) coordinates).

2. Inverse Kinematics (position to angles)

What you are given: The length of each link and The position of some point on
the robot.
What you can find: The angles of each joint needed to obtain that position.
Forward Kinematics (angles to position) 13
Inverse Kinematics (angles to position) 14
Quick Math Review! 15

 Vector: A geometric object with magnitude and direction.

 Examples of vector quantities: Velocity, displacement, acceleration, force.

 Vector Magnitude: Just the vector quantity without direction.

 Examples: Magnitude of velocity is speed, magnitude of displacement is distance,
etc.
 Unit Vector: Vector with magnitude of 1
Vector is A geometric object with 16

magnitude and direction

 Can be written in matrix form as a column vector

Vector Addition 17

 Sum each component of the vector

 This Yields a new vector Commutative.

Dot product of vector 18

This Yields a scalar Commutative.

Cross Product of vector 19

Yields a vector perpendicular to both original vectors Not commutative

Matrix Addition 20

- Sum matching elements

Matrix Multiplication 21

- Multiply rows and columns and sum

products

Matrices must have the same inner dimension Yields a new matrix of the same
size Not commutative
We can use vectors to succinctly represent 22

a point with respect to a certain reference

frame
We will use superscripts to indicate our 23

reference frame
Basic Transformations Representing a point in a different frame 24
Translation along the x-axis
Basic Transformations Representing a point in a different frame 25
Translation along the x-axis
Basic Transformations Representing a point in a different frame 26
Translation along the x-axis
Basic Transformations Representing a point in a different frame 27
Translation along the x-axis
Basic Transformations Representing a point in a different frame 28
Translation along the x-axis
Representing a point in a different frame: 29
Translation along the x- and y-axes
Representing a point in a different frame: 30
Translation along the x- and y-axes
Using Basis Vectors 31
-Basis vectors are unit vectors that point along a coordinate axis
Basic Transformations 32
-Representing a point in a different frame:
Rotation about z-axis (out of the board)
Basic Transformations Rotation about z-axis (out of the board) 33
finding Vx in terms of VN and VO
Basic Transformations Rotation about z-axis (out of the board) 34
finding Vy in terms of VN and VO
Basic Transformations Rotation about z-axis (out of the board) 35
finding Vxy in terms of VN and VO
Compound Transformations Representing a point in a different frame: 36
Translation along the x- and y-axes and rotation
Relative versus absolute translation 37

Relative:
 - Can be composed to create homogenous transformation matrix.
 - Translations are with respect to a frame fixed to the robot or point.

Absolute:
 - Translations are with respect to a fixed world frame.
The Homogeneous Matrix can represent both translation and rotation 38

 Definition. The linear system Ax = b is called homogeneous if b = 0; otherwise, it

is called inhomogeneous.
Rotation Matrices in 3D 39
Homogeneous Matrices in 3D 40
Homogeneous Continued…. 41
Finding the Homogeneous Matrix 42
Finding the Homogeneous Matrix 43
The Homogeneous Matrix is a concatenation of 44
numerous translations and rotations
One more variation on finding the homogeneous 45
transformation matrix
Three-Dimensional Illustration 46

 • Rotate X

 • Translate X

 • Rotate Z

 • Translate Z
Rotation about X 47
Translation about X 48
Rotation about Z 49
Translation in Z 50
Example Problem 1 51
1. Geometric Approach 52
2. Algebraic Approach 53
Cont…. 54
Cont…. 55
Example Problem 2 56
soln 57
Slight variation on the last solution: 58
Make the yellow dot the origin of a new coordinate
X4Y4 frame
Denavit–Hartenberg parameters 59

(DH parameters)
 In mechanical engineering, the Denavit–Hartenberg parameters (also
called DH parameters) are the four parameters associated with a
particular convention for attaching reference frames to the links of a
spatial kinematic chain, or robot manipulator.

 Jacques Denavit and Richard Hartenberg introduced this convention

in 1955 in order to standardize the coordinate frames for spatial
linkages.
Denavit–Hartenberg parameters 60

(DH parameters)
 In this convention, coordinate frames are attached to the joints
between two links such that one transformation is associated with
the joint [Z ], and the second is associated with the link [X ]. The
coordinate transformations along a serial robot consisting of n links
form the kinematics equations of the robot:

 Whereby: [T ] is the transformation that characterizes the location

and orientation of the end-link.
 61
 This convention allows the definition of the movement of links around a common joint axis
Si by the screw displacement:

 where θi is the rotation around and di is the sliding motion along the z-axis.

 where αi,i+1 and ri,i+1 define the physical dimensions of the link in terms of the angle
measured around and distance measured along the X axis.
 The z-axis is in the direction of the joint axis

62
The x-axis is parallel to the common normal:
(or away from zn–1), If there is no unique common normal
(parallel z axes), then d (below) is a free parameter. The direction
of xn is from zn–1 to zn, as shown.
The four parameters of classic DH convention are shown in red text, which 63
are θi, di, ai, αi. With those four parameters, we can translate the
coordinates from Oi–1Xi–1Yi–1Zi–1 to OiXiYiZi.

 d: offset along previous z to the

common normal
 θ: angle about previous z from
old x to new x
 r or a: length of the common
normal
 a(alpha): angle about common
normal, from old z axis to
new z axis
Denavit–Hartenberg matrix 64

 It is common to separate a screw displacement into product of a pure translation

along a line and a pure rotation about the line i.e

 And

 Each link can be described by a coordinate transformation from the concurrent

coordinate system to the previous coordinate system.
 65

 This gives:

 where R is the 3×3 submatrix describing rotation and T is the 3×1 submatrix describing
translation
The matrix of DH parameters becomes. 66
Inverse kinematics 67

 In computer animation and robotics, inverse kinematics is the

mathematical process of calculating the variable joint parameters
needed to place the end of a kinematic chain, such as a
robot manipulator or animation character's skeleton, in a given
position and orientation relative to the start of the chain.
 In robotics, inverse kinematics makes use of the kinematics
equations to determine the joint parameters that provide a desired
configuration (position and rotation) for each of the robot's
end-effectors
IK Problem Formulation. 68
Geometrical Approach: 69
Geometrical Approach cont…. 70
Geometrical Approach cont…. 71
Geometrical Approach cont…. 72
Geometrical Approach cont…. 73
Geometrical Approach cont…. 74
Soln 2. Algebraic Approach. 75
Algebraic Approach cont…. 76
Algebraic Approach cont…. 77
Algebraic Approach cont…. 78
Example: Stanford Manipulator 79
Example: Stanford Manipulator 80

solution required?
1. Kinematic Decoupling. 2. iterative algorithm, 3. numerical and geometric methods, and soft computing methods. The
Jacobian matrix is the most commonly used method of robot inverse kinematics.
soft computing methods. 81

 With the development of Softcomputing-based methods, it's become easier to

solve the inverse kinematic problem in higher speed with sufficient solutions
rather than using traditional methods like numerical, geometric and algebraic.

 Youtube Link

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pDiwAA1cnb0&t=2229s
INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION 82

 Industrial automation is a set of technologies that uses control

systems and devices, such as computer software and robotics, to
enable automatic operation of industrial processes and machinery
without the need for human operators.
INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION 83

 A wide range of tools are required for industrial automation. They

include various control systems that incorporate different devices
and systems impacting aspects of the manufacturing process.
 Tools which are used in industrial automation includes:-
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
 Human Machine Interface (HMI)
 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
 Distributed Control System (DCS)
 Robotics
Programmable Logic Controller(PLC) 84

 A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial

computer that has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes,
such as assembly lines, machines, robotic devices, or any activity that requires high
reliability, ease of programming, and process fault diagnosis.

It uses a programmable memory to store the instructions and

specific functions that include On/Off control, timing counting,
sequencing, arithmetic and data handling.
PLC ARCHTECTURE 85

 A PLC is an industrial microprocessor-based controller with programmable memory used to store

program instructions and various functions.
 It consists of following components:

 A processor unit (CPU) which interprets inputs, executes the control program stored in memory and
sends output signals,
 A power supply unit which converts AC voltage to DC,
 A memory unit storing data from inputs and program to be executed by the processor,
 An input and output interface(I/O)
 A communications interface to receive and transmit data on communication networks from/to remote
PLCs.
PLC ARCHTECTURE 86
Advantages and disadvantages of PLC 87

PLC Advantages
 Less and simple wiring
 Increased reliability
 More flexibility
 Lower cost
 Faster response
 Easier to trouble shoot
 Remote control capability
 Communication capability
 Handles much more complicated systems
Advantages and disadvantages of PLC 88

PLC Disadvantages
 In contrast to microcontroller systems that have what is called an open architecture, most PLCs
manufacturers offer only closed architectures for their products.

 PLC devices are proprietary, which means that parts and software from one manufacturer cant easily be
used in combination with parts of another manufacturer, which limits the design and cost options.
Power supply of plc 89

 A power supply of 120v ac is typically used to drive PLC (some units operate on 240v ac)

 The power supply converts the 120v ac into dc voltage of 5v

 These low voltages are used to operate equipment that many have much higher voltage and
power ratings than the PLC itself
I/O MODULE 90

 Forms the interface by which input field devices are

connected to the controller
 The terms “field” and “real world” are used to distinguish
actual external devices that exist and must be physically
wired into the system.

 Typical devices connecting to a PLC's inputs include hand

switches, process switches, sensors, analog transmitters ,
thermocouples, thermistors, and strain gauges.
I/O MODULE 91

 Forms the nterface by which output field devices are

connected to the controller
 PLC output devices
 Valves.
 Motors.
 Horns and alarms.
 Stack lights.
 Control relays.
 Pumps.
PLC sensors 92

What is a sensor?
 A sensor is a device that detects the change in the environment and responds to
some output on the other system.
 A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable analog voltage (or
sometimes a digital signal) converted into a human-readable display or
transmitted for reading or further processing
PLC sensors 93

Sensors used in plcs

 Switches and push buttons
 Limit switches
 Proximity sensors
 Photoelectric Sensors
 Condition sensors
 Vacuum switches
 Temperature sensors
 Level sensors
 Pressure sensors
PLC push button 94

A push button switch is a mechanical device used to control an electrical circuit in

which the operator manually presses a button to actuate an internal switching
mechanism.
PLC Limit switches 95

Limit switches are the most common sensing devices in industrial controls, providing
an electric signal when an object physically moves the actuator.
PLC Proximity sensors 96

Proximity Sensors in PLC are usually used in detecting the presence or absence of objects
made of varying materials.
They do so WITHOUT making contact. Sometimes they are called “proximity switches”
because the output is binary, HIGH or LOW—just like a switch.
PLC Photoelectric Sensors 97

A photoelectric sensor is a device that converts optical signals into electrical signals. Its
working principle is based on the photoelectric effect.
 uses light to detect the presence of an object or its distance from the sensor
PLC vacuum switch 98

A vacuum switch provides a switching contact function whenever a predetermined

vacuum gas pressure level is reached.
PLC vacuum switch 99

A vacuum switch provides a switching contact function whenever a predetermined

vacuum gas pressure level is reached.
PLC Level sensors 100

Level sensors used to determine the level of liquid or granule materials inside a tank or
container, then transfer status or data to a PLC.
Plc programming 101

 What I ladder logic?

Ladder logic was originally a written method to document the design and
construction of relay racks as used in manufacturing and process control.

 Ladder logic is used to develop software for programmable logic controllers

(PLCs) used in industrial control applications.
 The basic principles of ladder logic are straightforward. Each rung on the ladder
defines one operation in the control process. A rung has read rails on the left,
write rails on the right, and the logic operations in between.
Overview of Bit Logic Instructions 102

 Bit logic instructions work with two digits, 1 and 0. These two digits form the
base of a number system called the binary system. 1 and 0 are called binary digits
or bits. In the world of contacts and coils, a 1 indicates activated or energized, and
a 0 indicates not activated or not energized.
 There are bit logic instructions to perform the following functions:
The following instructions react to an RLO 103

of 1:

Other instructions react to a positive or negative edge transition

to perform the following functions:

104
However, rather than working in series or parallel, the PLC combines instructions logically
using logic operators like: AND, OR, and NOT.

1. AND-logic function

 both switches (SW1 AND SW2) must be closed to have electrical continuity to energize the
output (Light-1). Hence the keyword here is AND.
 105
2. OR-logic function

one of the switches (SW1 OR SW2) must be closed to have electrical continuity to energize the
output (Light-1). Hence the keyword here is OR.
 106
3. NAND logic function:
 107
4. NOR logic function:
 108
5. XOR logic function:
 109
6. NOT logic function:
 110
7. Set Coil Instruction:

Description: ---( S )--- (Set Coil) is executed only if the RLO of the preceding
instructions is "1" (power flows to the coil). If the RLO is "1" the specified of the
element is set to "1". An RLO = 0 has no effect and the current state of the
element’s specified address remains unchanged.
 111
8. Reset Coil Instruction:

Description: ---( R )--- (Reset Coil) is executed only if the RLO of the preceding
instructions is "1" (power flows to the coil). If power flows to the coil (RLO is "1"), the
specified of the element is reset to "0". A RLO of "0" (no power flow to the coil) has
no effect and the state of the element’s specified address remains unchanged.
The address may also be a timer (T no.) whose timer value is reset to "0" or a counter (C no.)
whose counter value is reset to "0". .
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qQoHQ0b-d1U
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