Memory

Memory
• The ability to store and later recall previously
learned facts and experiences

Basic process of memory

i) Encoding
• Receiving sensory input and transferring it into a form of
code which can be stored.
• Encoding information is selective and prolific
• Information can be encoded throigh visual, acoustic and
semantic ways
• Role of attention and emotion

You have been to a party where you were introduced to someone and then, maybe
only seconds later, you realized that you did not remember the person’s name. You
could not remember the name, probably because you were distracted and never
encoded the name to begin with.
ii) Storage
• The process of holding information in memory to be
processed or used.
• After encoding, information moves to one of three
main storage areas—sensory memory, short-term
memory, and long-term memory.

iii) Retrieval
• It refers to getting information from storage
• Memory would be useless without the ability to
retrieve the memories that we have created.
• Retrieval might occur in the form of recall, recognition
or relearning.
Memory conceptualized in terms of types,
stages and process
 Atkinson and Shiffrin(1968)- Stages of Memory

• Information begins in sensory memory, moves to short-

term memory, and eventually moves to long-term memory.

i) Sensory memory
• Refers to the brief storage of sensory information. The
memory is quickly forgotten unless it is attended

• Momentary storage of information, lasting half second for

visual information and 3-4 seconds for auditory information

• If we view something as valuable, the information will

move into our short-term memory system.
Look at the list of words below for two minutes. Memorize as many words as
you can in this amount of time. Without looking at the list, give yourself two
minutes to write down as many words from the list as you can.
ii) Short-term memory
• It is a temporary storage system that processes
incoming sensory memory

• Short-term memory storage lasts 15 to 30 seconds.

• The typical storage capacity for short-term memory is

seven, plus or minus two items

• Memories stored in short-term memory are usually

encoded acoustically, i.e., when spoken aloud
repeatedly, the memory is likely to be stored in short-
term memory.
iii) Long- term memory
• It is an unlimited storehouse of skills, vocabulary,
experiences, and knowledge about ourselves and the
world around us.

• Long term memory has unlimited capacity to store

information from minutes to even year

• There are a number of factors that can influence how

long information endures in long-term memory:
- The way the memory was encoded in the first place
- The number of times you access a memory
Explicit memory
• refers to knowledge or experiences that can be
consciously remembered.

i) Episodic memory refers to the firsthand experiences

that we have had.
Example: recollections of our high school graduation day or
birthday party.

ii) Semantic memory refers to our knowledge of facts

and concepts about the world.
Example: name of districts in Province 3
Implicit memory
• Refers to knowledge that we cannot consciously
access but has a direct effect on our behavior

• Becomes automatic over time with repetition

i) Procedural memory refers to our knowledge of how

to do things.

Example: Riding a bicycle, cooking noodles

Remembering the words to a popular song after hearing the first
few notes
 Models of memory
i) Information Processing Model
• Computer-mind analogy
• The ‘input’ is the information we give to the computer – or to our
brains – while the CPU is likened to our short-term memory, and
the hard-drive is our long-term memory.
ii) Parallel Distribution Model
• The parallel processing model represents a person's ability to take in
and understand lots of different stimuli at the same time.
• When observing an object or situation, we take in all the information
available all at one time while our brain combines the information into
a solid understanding.
For example, when a person looks at a firetruck, they will see the red color,
fire hose, and logo all at once to quickly recognize it for what it is.

• Parallel processing allows people to make such observations quickly,

rather than analyzing each part of the object or situation separately.
• These models assume that information processing takes place through
interactions of large numbers of simple processing elements called
units, each sending excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units.
This model has 3 basic principles:
• the representation of information is distributed
• memory and knowledge for specific things are not stored
explicitly, but stored in the connections between units.
• learning can occur with gradual changes in connection
strength by experience.

Example: When driving, you must be constantly aware of your surroundings

and use information from all of your senses to respond quickly and accurately
to any potential dangers. This requires processing multiple pieces of sensory
information in parallel to make safe decisions when behind the wheel.

When learning a new language, you must first encode new words in short-term
memory before transferring them into long-term memory through rehearsal
and repetition. This process involves both serial and parallel processing as you
are encoding new words while also rehearsing previously learned words at the
same time.
 Retrieval
Retrieval cues
• Stimuli that assist in memory retrieval, bringing them to
conscious awareness
• Can be external and internal (stimuli and emotions)
• Easy to retrive memories with cues present during encoding

Recall
• This type of memory retrieval involves being able to access the
information without being cued. Answering a question on a fill-
in-the-blank test is a good example of recall.
• Free recall is when a person recalls information without cues or
hints; cued recall is when a person recalls information with cues
or hints. Serial recall when memories are recalled in a sequence
of their occurrence.
Recognition
• It is defined as the ability of a person to identify something as
having been encountered in the past even if they might not
recall anything else about it.
• It requires no depth of processing; can be quick

Recognizing photographs of celebrities but not recalling their

names.

Reconstruction
• Refers to the idea that remembering the past reflects our
attempts to reconstruct the events experienced previously.
• These efforts are based partly on traces of past events, but also
on our perception, expectations, belief, imagination
Automatic Encoding
• Automatic encoding is a process of memory where
information is taken in and encoded without deliberate effort.

• Our attention and memory can automatically filter certain

types of information, such as things that are familiar, relevant,
or salient to us.

• This can be seen in how a person can learn and remember

how things are arranged in a house, or where to find
particular items in a grocery store.
 Memory and brain
Amygdala
The main job of the amygdala is to
regulate emotions. Amygdala plays a
part in encoding emotionally
arousing events,
It is also involved in memory
consolidation.

Hippocampus
Hippocampus hold short-term
memories and transfer them to
long-term storage in our brains.

Cerebellum
plays a large role in implicit
memories (procedural memory,
Prefrontal cortex
motor learning, and classical
Involved in short term memory, helps in planning
conditioning).
behavior in immediate situations
 Forgetting

• Forgetting typically involves

a failure in memory
retrieval.

• While the information

maybe in your long-term
memory, you are not able to
actually retrieve and
remember it.
Please discuss types of forgetting
Causes of forgetting
• Inadequate impression
• Laps of time
• Interference
Proactive
Retroactive
• Weak physical and mental state
• Nature of material and method used in learning
• Emotional factor
Theories of forgetting

i) Decay theory
• Proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time.
• When an individual learns something new, a neurochemical
"memory trace" is created. However, over time this trace slowly
disintegrates.

ii) Motivated forgetting theory

• People can block out, or forget, upsetting or traumatic memories,
because there is a motivation to do so consciously or
unconsciously (suppression & repression)
Example: Psychogenic amnesia, in which a person exhibits profound
amnesia for large chunks of their personal experiences in the
aftermath of an intensely stressful period
iii) Retrieval failure theory
• Forgetting of information occurs when an individual fails to retrieve
information from their memory. Even though the information stored
as long-term memory is not lost, we cannot recall it at the given
moment.
• Failure in encoding and lack fo retrieval cues

iv) Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)

• is a state in which one cannot quite recall a familiar word at that
point of time but can recall words of similar form and meaning.

v) Repression theory
• the mind unconsciously pushes unpleasant memories into the
subconscious to avoid consciously experiencing painful experiences,
leading to forgetting of things we don't want to remember.
Example : a child who is abused by a parent, who later has no recollection of
the events, but has trouble forming relationships
 Amnesia
• Simply defined as loss of memory
• Symptoms include memory loss, confusion and the
inability to recognise familiar faces or places.
Types
i) Anterograde amnesia
• Causes problems with short-term memory.
• Results in an impaired ability to learn and remember new
information, form new memories even though you may be
able to remember past experience
ii) Retrograde amnesia
• Causes problems with long-term memory.
• It interferes with your ability to retrieve information you
learned or experienced before the onset of amnesia.

iii) Transient global amnesia

• Occurs as a sudden and brief loss of memory, often in middle-
aged or elderly people.
• It is a temporary condition that usually lasts between one and
10 hours.
• During that time, you are unable to make new memories, but
you usually retain your memory of your identity, the identity
of family members, and your ability to perform daily tasks.
• Result of seizure activity , brief blockage of blood to brain
Causes
• Brain injury from a car crash or other type of blunt force
• Stroke, brain tumor, dementia, or other types of brain
disease
• Encephalitis or other types of brain infection
• Hypoxia, ischemia, carbon monoxide poisoning, or
other types of oxygen deprivation
• Alcohol abuse
• Medications, drug abuse, or general anesthesia
• Wernicke encephalopathy (thiamine deficiency)
• Emotional trauma as a result of a disturbing event or
experience
 False Memory
• Memory is not a “snapshot” of what actually occurred, but rather
a combination of actual events and information supplied after the
fact, some accurate and some maybe not
• False memories develop when people are unable to recall the
source of a memory of a particular event about which they have
only vague recollections.
• When the source of the memory becomes unclear or ambiguous,
people may become confused about whether they actually
experienced the event or whether it was imagined.
• Influenced by leaidng questions, suggestibility, confirmation bias
(favoring information that confirms existing beliefs) or consistency
bias (altering memories to be consistent with current beliefs)
50 students were shown a one-minute film which featured a car driving
through the countryside followed by four seconds of a multiple traffic
accident.

Afterward, the students were questioned about the film. The independent
variable was the type of question asked.

50 participants were asked “how fast were the car going when they hit
each other?”,
50 participants were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they
smashed each other?”
the remaining 50 participants were not asked a question about the car’s
speed (i.e., the control group).

One week later, the dependent variable was measured – without seeing
the film again, they answered ten questions, one of which was a critical
one randomly placed in the list: