Seed Production 1 1

PRODUCTION OF SEED CROPS
CPT
06102
TUTOR; MADAM FAITH WILILO
PRODUCTION OF SEED CROPS
• Credit hours= 14
Assessment:
• At least 3 tests
• ……. Quizzes/assignment
• Semester examination
PRODUCTION OF SEED CROPS..
• Content;
a)Definition-seed
b)Attributes of quality seed
c) Plant breeding technologies in seed
production
d)Techniques to develop and maintain seed
varieties
e)Seed production systems in Tanzania
PRODUCTION OF SEED CROPS..
f) Seed production in seed crops
Site selection and land preparation, sowing seed
and transplant seedlings, gap filing and thinning,
weeding, erthing up, fertilizer application, pest
control, detussling, emasculation, harvesting,
packing and storing seed.
INTRODUCTION
Definition of seed
• In agriculture, seed is broadly defined as a
living thing used to produce a plant. Or
• is the part of the plant which is used or
intended to be used for propagation.
• They are the living organisms, which carry the
genetic properties of a crop necessary for the
propagation of the plant species.
Introduction…
• Seed is a fertilized mature ovule consists of a
miniature plant (embryo) and food reserves.
• Generally, the term seed refer to botanical
seed as well as vegetative materials. In other
words seed is part of a plant from which a
new plant of the same kind can grow.
Introduction…
• Types of seed
-true seed and
-vegetative propagation materials.
• True seed: cereals, grasses, legumes and most
vegetables seed , Some fruit trees such as mangoes
also produce true seeds
• Vegetative propagation materials: crops such as

cassava, sweet potatoes and some cut flowers are
vegetatively propagated through cuttings, suckers,
tubers, vines, corms, or bulbils.
Introduction…
FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF SEEDS IN AGRICULTURE:
• Seeds are the single important input in crop
production that they determine the upper
limit on yield and therefore the ultimate
productivity of other inputs.
• Seeds are also primary agents of change in
agricultural production
Introduction…
FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF SEEDS IN AGRICULTURE...
• Seeds are the sources of food
• Seeds are the carrier of genetic inheritance
from one generation to another (generative
multiplication of the plant).
Introduction…
FUNCTIONS/ROLES OF SEEDS IN
AGRICULTURE...
• Seeds are means of survival of the plant
species for example through dormancy and
tolerance to dehydration.
• Seeds are used as sources of industrial raw
materials e.g Cashew nut shell liquid
QUIZ 1
• Write the common propagation material of
each of the following crops;
• 1. Cassava
• 2. Maize
• 3. Banana
• 4. Pineapple
• 5. Sisal
Introduction…
Seed vs grain
Seed Grain
• produced for further • normally produced for
multiplication of the variety. human and livestock
• the quality control agency consumption
do monitor the quality of • no such follow ups made
the variety being multiplied
from initial stage of
production, processing up
to marketing
Introduction…
seed vs grain
Seed Grain
• Test for the quality attributes • only moisture content is an
such as analytical purity, important factor.
species purity, freedom from
weed seeds, germination
capacity, moisture content
and seed health
• As a result of extra care to • Low price
meet the quality
requirements, the price of
seeds is relatively higher than
that of grain.
Introduction…
seed vs grain
Seed Grain
• effort is made to rogue out • In grain production, no such
off-types, diseased plants, effort is made hence, the
objectionable weeds and purity and health status
other crop plants at may be inferior
appropriate stages of crop
growth which ensures
satisfactory seed purity and
health
Introduction…
seed vs. grain
Seed Grain
• some cultural practices are • No such modification

modified in order to harvest
high quality seed.
• the aim of producing high

• the major aim is to get high
quality seeds is of prime
yield
importance.
Introduction…
Due to the quality differences
between seed and grain, farmers
are discouraged to use grain for
establishing a crop.
Introduction…
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES TO BE
INCORPORATED IN SEED PRODUCTION:
• The land to be selected for seed production
should be of the known cropping history, not
be grown of the same crop in the previous
season.
Introduction…
INCORPORATED IN SEED PRODUCTION…
• Freedom of seed-borne diseases is another
consideration to the seed producer when
multiplying a certain variety.
Introduction…
• Isolation of seed crops (both by distance or
time of establishment) from possible
contaminants pollinating crop is essential to
maintain purity.
Introduction…
• Rouging of off-types and diseased plants are
the common practices in seed production.
SEED QUALITY
SEED QUALITY
• Seed quality could be defined as; The
suitability of seed for sowing or A measure of
excellence of the seed with reference to
standards or A standard of excellence in
certain characters or attributes that will
determine the performance of the seed when
sown or stored.
SEED QUALITY…
• Quality seed insures;
• good germination, rapid emergence, and
vigorous growth. These aspects translate to a
good stand (whether greenhouse or field).
SOWING VS PLANTING
•Sowing is the process of planting seed in the
soil.
•Planting; put/place( a seed, bulb or plant) in
the ground(out of doors) so that it can grow;
especially after growing it from seed in an
indoor environment
SEED QUALITY..
• 1.5.1 Components of seed quality;
• Physical (analytical) purity,
• Cultivar (genetic) purity,
• physiological quality (germination capacity
and vigor),
• seed health and
• seed moisture content.
SEED QUALITY…
• 1.5.1.1. Analytical (physical) purity
This means the percentage weight of a

seed sample that is intact seed of the species
named on the label after analysis of the seed
sample in the laboratory.
…
A.P = total seed sample – impurities x 100%
Total seed sample
• -It indicates how much of the material in a
seed lot is actual a seed.
…
• In the analysis all impurities are separated
from pure seed.
• Impurities are seeds of other species, weed
seeds and inert material such as broken seeds,
chaffs, pieces of plant leaves and soil particles.
…
1.5.1.2. Cultivar (genetic) purity;
• means trueness-to-type of the seed lot.
• It is important to assure the genetic identity
which makes cultivars distinct.
• Genetic purity is best evaluated through a field
trial in which the percentage of off-types in a
seed lot is determined.
…
• It measures the genetic quality of the seed as
developed by the breeder in terms of being
free from other cultivars of the same species.
• The characteristics of the cultivar must be
maintained through all the stages of
multiplication.
• The certified seed which is distributed to the
farmers must truly represent the cultivar
named on the container.
…
• This attribute of quality is best controlled in the
field by inspection and tested in field plot test.
Cultivars other than the specific cultivar are
therefore identified by examination of growing
plants by conducting DUS test. The results of these
variety trials are made available to the grower; this
information is used as a tool to guide on-farm
selection of the plants in the seed crop so that the
seed produced from that crop is true-to-type.
…
• Genetic purity evaluation can also include
screening for transgenic (GMO)
contamination. Corn and beets, for example,
are increasingly tested for the presence of
transgenes. Seed companies typically request
and pay for the testing, which is conducted at
independent labs.
…
• DUS test: (Distinctness, Uniformity and
Stability)
Distinctness
Distinctness from all other cultivars

is essential because if the new cultivar is the
same as an existing one, there is no point of
releasing it.
…
• Distinctness…
• The candidate variety should clearly be
distinct in one or more characteristics from
any other variety and the specialist
responsible for multiplication and certification
of the seed must be able to distinguish and
identify the cultivar.
• Distinction may be in morphological,
physiological or agronomic characters.
…
• Uniformity
In assessing cultivars uniformity a number of

factors are taken into consideration. The
degree of uniformity attainable depends on
the breeding system.
…
• In a pure line, every individual plant can be
identical and the candidate variety should be
sufficiently homogeneous, but within a cross
pollinated cultivar, this is impossible and there
may be considerable variability.
• The standard of uniformity acceptable is
therefore not the same for all crop species or
for all cultivars of the same species, but
should be kept as high as possible.
…
• Stability
The capacity of the cultivars to

reproduce itself over several generations
without losing its distinctive characters.
…
• Stability…
• A stable cultivar presents no problems under
controlled multiplication for certification and
the commercial farmer needs to renew his
seed infrequently, therefore the candidate
variety should not change in its essential
characteristics after propagation cycle
…
• Stability…
• Like uniformity, the degree of stability
attainable is influenced by the breeding
system. Pure line cultivars are stable, at the
other extreme, seed of F1 hybrid cultivar is
completely unstable, but nevertheless it is
possible to produce seed of the cultivar every
year.
…
• 1.5.1.3. Species purity
The number of seeds of species other than the

one indicated on the label of the weight
submitted for analysis. E.g. 2seeds/kg. Species
purity is determined in the laboratory. For some
purposes the percentage analytical purity is not
sufficiently precise. When a sample is examined,
the number of seeds of other species is counted
and result is expressed as the number of seeds
in the weight of seed examined.
…
• 1.5.1.4. Physiological quality
(a) Germination capacity; the percentage by

number of pure seed which produce normal
seedlings in the laboratory test. Weak or
abnormal seedlings are ignored. Seed lots with a
higher germination capacity will always prove to
establish more seedlings than those with lower
germination capacity, especially under sub-
optimal conditions.
…
• It can be combined with analytical purity and
expressed as one value called pure live seed. i.
e pure live seed =(%analytical purity * %
germination capacity)/ 100
…
• Seed vigor; is often implied when discussing
seed quality, and most growers have come to
use the terms "quality" and "vigor"
interchangeably. "Vigor" is defined as those
properties that determine the potential
performance of seed during germination and
establishment.
…
• Or The sum total of all properties of seed
which determine the level of activity and
performance of the seed lot during
germination and seedling emergence.
Therefore, high-vigor seed should be used in all
instances to ensure good stand establishment
under varying field conditions. Germination
capacity represents the ability of the seed to
produce seedlings under good field conditions
…
• Factors causing differences in seed vigor
(between higher and lower seed vigor):

• Seed size
• Stage of maturity of seed during harvesting
• The growing conditions of the mother plant
• Mechanical damage during harvesting and
processing
• Deterioration caused by poor storage, long stored
seed and pathogens
• Genetic constitution
…
• 1.5.1.5. Seed health: It is very important to use
pathogen free seed for sowing. Seeds may carry
pathogens like bacteria, fungi, viruses and
nematodes. These pathogens affect crop yield if
infected seeds are sown. Some seed-borne
diseases can be controlled by chemical
treatment of seed which may be poisonous to
man and animals. Therefore it is better to sow
seeds harvested from health crop plants to
reduce chemical treatment.
…
• 1.5.1.6. Freedom from weed seeds; the
situation whereby the crop seed is clean and
no mixture with weeds seeds. It is the number
of weed seeds per weight of the sample
examined.
…
• Expressed in number because weed seeds
differ much in size such that a percentage by
weight of a crop seed may be meaningless. So
the important is the number of weed seeds
sown with a crop and not their weight. This
also is analyzed in the laboratory. There are
some weed species called noxious weeds
which once they have established in farms,
they are difficult to eradicate.
…
1.5.1.7. Seed moisture content;
• The Knowledge of seed moisture content
permits the determination of optimum time to
harvest, identifies appropriate seed storage
and drying recommendations. Seeds either
give off or take up water from the surrounding
atmosphere until the moisture content of it
and the relative humidity of air are in
equilibrium.
…
• The factors with the greatest effect on the
viability of stored seeds are moisture content
and storage temperature, they influence
respiration rate of seeds, fungi and other
micro-organisms associated with seeds.
…
• Therefore a good quality seed should posses the following
characteristics; - High analytical,
species and cultivar purity.
-Free from weed
seeds.
- High germination capacity and vigor (90-
100%)
-Free from seed-borne diseases and

pests -
low moisture content.
…
• -Viable –it should be able to germinate and grow
when planted
-Should not be broken:
broken seed which contain the embryo, germinate

less, have higher seedling mortality and produce
smaller plants than whole seeds. Creaks in the seed
coat and injury at the end of embryo of cereals are
deleterious to germination.
…
• -Should be well matured;
mature seed is preferable to immature seed.

Immature seed because of its small size has low
reserve of food supply and usually produces
poor plants when conditions are adverse at
planting time. Also in higher moisture areas,
immature seeds are vulnerable to frost injury.
…
• - Uniformly large size;
Good quality seed should be large in size due

to the fact that small seeds invariably produce
small seedlings while large seeds produce
more vigorous seedlings which survive
adverse conditions well. The logarithms of
seedlings and seed weights are directly
proportional
PRACTICAL WORK
•PERFORM SEED SELECTION USING SEED
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES YOU HAVE LEARNED
Seed physiology
• Seed physiology refers to the study of
functions and processes of bodily parts of
seed.
• The physiological processes in plants include
photosynthesis, respiration, growth and
development, dormancy, maturation, tropism
and germination.
Seed physiology…
• 2.1 Photosynthesis It is the process of converting
the light energy into chemical energy in plants
and other organisms like algae, cyano bacteria
and some protists.Photosynthesis equation;
6CO2 + 6H2O Sunlight C6H12O6 +6CO2

Chlorophyll
Seed physiology…
• 2.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
– It harnesses the sun’s energy into utilizable forms
of energy on earth
– Carbon dioxide removal.
– It provides foods for almost all other living things
on earth;
– Photosynthesis provides oxygen on earth; 90% of
oxygen on earth is from photosynthesis and 99%
of organisms on earth are aerobic
Seed physiology…
• 2.2 RESPIRATION
• Respiration is a process of oxidizing food to release energy
inside cells.
• respiration in plants involves using the sugars produced
during photosynthesis plus oxygen to produce energy for
plant growth, takes place in the mitochondria of the cell
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 32 ATP (energy)
• Respiration increases dramatically as the seed sprouts.
Seed physiology…
• 2.2.2 Importance of respiration
• Cellular respiration converts the energy in
glucose to energy in the form of ATP which is
used to power physiological processes like seed
germination and growth.
• Aerobic respiration returns CO2 to the
atmosphere to be used again in photosynthesis
Seed physiology…
• Seed dormancy is a situation whereby viable
seeds fail to germinate in the presence of
favourable environmental conditions.
• It is a biological mechanism that provides
protection against germination when
environmental conditions may not be
favourable for seedling growth.
Seed physiology…
• A dormant seed is a live seed that is unable to
germinate in a specific period of time under a
combination of environmental factors that are
normally suitable for germination.
Some causes of seed dormancy are:
• a) Hard seed coat
• b) Embryo dormancy
• c) Immature embryo- the embryo is not fully
developed when the seed is dispersed
• d) Chemical inhibitor
Seed physiology…
• 2.3.1 Types of dormancy
• i. Quiescent(resting phase) seed dormancy -
even a non-dormant or quiescent seed has a
unique ability to revert to a dormant state
under stressful conditions. Dormancy is
desired in the wild, where plants depend
entirely on nature for survival.
Seed physiology…
ii. Structural dormancy is imposed via seed coat,
which prohibits the entry of water, air, outward
diffusion of possible endogenous germination
inhibitors, as well as through mechanical
restriction of embryo growth.
Species with hard, impervious seed coverings occur
in trees such as Acacia species. To help such
seeds to germinate, mechanical methods were
employed to loosen the seed covering by
cracking the seed coat.
Seed physiology…
iii. Physiological dormancy (embryo dormancy) occurs
when the embryo requires a special treatment to
induce it to start active growth.
• In some plant species, embryo dormancy can be
broken by a certain quality of light. For example,
exposure of lettuce seeds to red light (about 660 nm)
induces germination, but far red light (730nm) inhibits
it.
• It was indicated long years ago that if lettuce seeds
received red light after exposure to far red light,
germination occurred and the germination of seeds of
this species can occur only as long as the last treatment
before sowing was red light.
Seed physiology…
Methods of breaking seed dormancy;
i. Scarification: Scarification is when the seed coat
is rubbed with something such as sandpaper. This
makes the seed coat thinner so water can enter
more easily. This method is best for smaller seeds
that are hard to cut. To do this easily you can
shake the seeds forcefully in a container lined
with sandpaper. It may also involve mechanical
methods such as use of hot water (77 – 100 0C) or
using chemicals such as sulphuric acid.
Seed physiology…
Methods of breaking seed dormancy…
ii. Stratification:
• This involves provision of moist, aerobic conditions
during the after ripening period. In cold stratification,
dormant seed is stored at high moisture, aerated and
low temperature conditions (at 2 0C). Temperate fruits
like apples and pears are treated this way. Warm
stratification involves moist storage of temperatures
above 7 0C. This promotes germination due to
microbial decomposition of the seed cover.
Seed physiology…
iii. Chipping seeds: Chipping is cutting a small
piece out of seed coat with a sharp knife.
Water can then enter the test a through the
cut. This is useful on large seeds for example,
sweet pea
Seed physiology…
iv. Soaking seeds: Soaking seeds in water
overnight will soften the testa and make it
permeable to gases and water. This can be
useful for seeds such as sweet pea.
Commercial growers use diluted acids such as
sulphuric acid on some seeds.
Seed physiology…
• Methods of breaking seed dormancy…
v. Embryo culture: In some species (eg certain
types of peaches), the embryo will not be well
matured to be able to germinate when the
fruit is ripe. This is overcome by culturing the
embryo in media which provide certain types
of nutrients.
Seed physiology…
• Methods of breaking seed dormancy…
vi. Use of chemical promoters
• Some seeds contain chemicals (Chemical inhibitors)
that prevent germination. This is common in fleshy
fruit but it depends on the seed type as to what will
get rid of the inhibitor. The use of plant growth
regulators, such as gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene,
thiourea and sodium hypochlorite can break this
type of dormancy..
Seed physiology…
Seed deterioration
Seed deterioration refers to gradual reduction
of seed ability to live.
• Seed are biological living entities, which are
regarded as a basic need for existence of
plants.
• Once seed loose the capacity to live, they are
of no value for planting purposes,
Seed physiology…
Causes of seed deterioration
• The rate of seed deterioration is highly influenced
by Field Management and handling,
environmental and biological factors.
• i. Field management prior to harvest; this poses
the greatest threat to the quality of the seed and
its longevity. Once seed deterioration begins in
the field nothing can be done to improve the
situation.
Seed physiology…
Causes of seed deterioration…
ii. Mechanical damage;
• due to post harvesting activities
• which may cause fracturing (bruises and
cracking) of essential parts of the seed, broken
seed coats permits easy entry of pathogens.
Seed physiology…
iii. Temperature; Temperature influences the
amount of moisture and also enhances the
rate of deteriorative reactions occurring in
seeds.
• High temperature hastened the rate of
biochemical processes (respiration,
enzymatic) triggering more rapid deterioration
that results into rapid losses.
Seed physiology…
iv. Moisture Content; Deteriorative reactions
occur more readily in seeds at higher moisture
content.
• Seeds stored at high moisture content lead to
increased respiration, heating, and fungal
invasion resulting in reduced seed vigor and
viability.
Seed physiology…
v. Pests, Bacteria and fungi; their respiration
(bacteria and fungi) produces energy which
may raise the seeds temperature and cause
their death.
Seed physiology…
vi. Time: time imposes the greatest unforeseen
threat, with time any living material has a
beginning and ending point.
Seed physiology…
Seed formation
• Flowering plant continues life in the form of male and
female flower structure. These floral parts are
initiated through the interaction of the plant hormonal
system with environment, including day length and
temperatures. Pollination and fertilization are
essential pre-request events for the seed formation.
• Monoecious plants have reproductive organs found in
separate flowers on the same plant.
• Dioecious plants are those in which reproductive
organs are formed in separate flowers on different
plants of the same specie
• Pollination and fertilization are pre-requisite
events for seed formation. Seed formation
takes place in female part of the flower where
the ovules inside the ovary are fertilized by
pollen grain from anthers of male part of the
flower.
• Pistil is the female flower organ which is
composed of ovary, style, and stigma. While
the male part ( stamen ) is made of anthers and
filament.
Seed physiology…
Seed formation…
• The stamen and pistil are called essential
organs because they are necessary for seed
formation. All botanical seeds at maturity
consist of 3 parts:
• Seed covering (Testa) for protection
• Supporting tissue (such as cotyledons or
endosperm), which provide nutrition
• Embryo, which carry the basic function of
propagation and multiplication.
Seed physiology…
steps on the formation of seed :
• i. The formation of reproductive organs;
stamen which is a male part of the flower and
pistil which is a female part of the flower are
formed, and the opening of the flower (to
release pollen grains) which signals the sexual
maturity of these organs;
Seed physiology…
steps on the formation of seed…
ii. Pollination; the transfer of pollen from the
stamen (anther) to the pistil (stigma) either
naturally by wind, insects, gravity or artificially
by breeders.
Seed physiology…
iii. Germination of the pollen and formation of
pollen tube; The pollen grain wall splits and
pollen tube penetrates the stigma and grow
down the style to the ovule. Two male nuclei,
or sperms, move down each pollen tube to
the ovule.
Seed physiology…
iv. Fertilization;
• The pollen grain and the egg cell nuclei, unite and
produce the embryo mother cell (zygote) with
the chromosome number characteristic of the
species.
• Another sperm cell fuse with two polar nuclei in
the embryo sac to form endosperm which is the
source of nutrients for the growing embryo.
Seed physiology…
v. Embryogenesis;
• The embryo mother cell then undergoes
repeated divisions by mitosis to form the
embryo which is confined together with other
tissues of the seed
QUIZ!!!!!!!
QUIZ!!!!!!!!
QUIIIZ!
• Outline three parts of botanical seed at
maturity and state the function of each (6
marks) (6 minutes)
Seed physiology…
Seed development
• This is the process by which seeds are formed
from the end of fertilization to the production
of a mature seed body. After fertilization,
subsequent growth and differentiation on the
ovule occur in a series of interdependence
changes and follow a characteristic cycle for
each species.
Seed physiology…
Seed development…
• Growth of the endosperm follows the growth
of the ovule. The embryo then starts showing
a measurable increase in volume and begins
to grow rapidly after the endosperm reaches
maximum volume.
Seed physiology…
Environmental factors affecting seed
development
•Soil fertility: In general, plants that have been
fertilized with the three major elements (N, P,
and K) produce larger seeds than those which
have not been fertilized. The increase in seed
size is due to a enhanced seed development
rate during the seed filling period as a
consequence of increased nutrient availability.
Seed physiology…
Environmental factors affecting seed
development…
• Water; its deficits reduce plant metabolism
and seed development. Prolonged droughts
and reduced soil water availability cause
decreases in seed size, particularly when these
effects occur during seed filling. If water deficits
occur during flowering, its primary effect is on a
reduction in seed number.
• Light: The seasonal distribution of solar
radiation is a fundamental factor in assuring
adequate plant development. In general,
reduced light to the parent plant results in
smaller seeds.
• Temperature: High temperatures during seed
development produce smaller seeds, while
low temperatures retard seed growth. Seed
germination and vigor are also adversely
affected by exposure to low temperatures
during development. High temperatures are
considered the principal reason for the
“forced maturation” of some plants
Seed physiology…
• Seed position on the plant; The position in
the inflorescence can affect seed
development rate. For example, Soybean pods
located in lower plant branches are produced
before those located in the upper nodes and
are affected by different environmental
conditions during development and this
causes differences in seed performance.
Seed physiology…
• Maize seeds at the tip of the ear are smaller
than those at the base which has been
attributed to inadequate photosynthetic
supply. Smaller seeds are also produced from
smaller fruits or those that mature later in the
growing season or are exposed to unfavorable
environmental conditions. The usual
consequence is decreased seed germination
and vigor.
Seed physiology…
Seed maturation
• Is the morphological, biochemical,
physiological and functional changes and
differentiation that takes place from
fertilization up to the time when the seed is
ready for harvest.
Seed physiology…
Seed maturation …
• There are two types of maturity these are
physiological maturity and harvest maturity.
• The seed is considered to have reached
physiological maturity when it first attains its
maximum dry weight. After this stage there is
no more accumulation of food reserves and
the seed only loses water about 10-20%
depending upon weather conditions.
Seed physiology…
Seed maturation…
• However seed is normally not harvested at
physiological maturity, as its moisture content
is still very high.
• Most cereals reach physiological maturity at
40% moisture content
Seed physiology…
Seed maturation…
•Determination of physiological maturity.
There are three dominant physiological maturity
concepts are :
a. Physiological maturity is identified as maximum seed
dry matter accumulation
b. Physiological maturity is reached when there is no
further significant increase in seed dry weight
c. Physiological maturity occurs when seeds reach
maximum dry weight, germination and vigor
Seed physiology…
• Seed maturation…
• Harvest maturity is a stage of development at
which a plant or plant part possesses the
prerequisites for use by consumer for a
particular purpose. It is also called
horticultural maturity. Seeds attain harvest
maturity in the late stage of development.
Seed physiology…
The changes associated with seed maturity can
be summarized as follows:
i. change in the moisture content
• In the unfertilized ovule the moisture is above
80%. After fertilization, moisture increases
slightly for few days, then from that point
onwards moisture decreases rapidly until
equilibrium is established with field
environment
Seed physiology…
changes associated with seed maturity…
ii. Seed size;
• Seed size increases from the time of
fertilization and maximum size is reached at
the highest moisture content. Later the seed
size may decrease due to dryness, respiration
and activities of pathogens.
Seed physiology…
iii. Dry weight
• As seed develops, an increase in weight is very
conspicuous as a result of nutrient and water
uptake. Different parts of seed may account
for most of the weight and indicate the point
when translocation is exactly balanced by
respiration under a given environment.
Seed physiology…
iv. Seed viability and vigour;
• Many seeds can germinate few days following
anthesis, i.e. immature seeds can germinate
but vigour increases until it reaches its
maximum at physiological maturity.
Seed physiology…
changes associated with seed maturity
v. Chemical and other changes.
• Carbohydrate content increases rapidly
especially in endosperm of monocots with
development.
• Sucrose and reducing sugar, initially high,
decrease rapidly as starch content rises.
• Protein increases for a certain period of time
and remains constant.
Seed physiology…
Seed germination
• Germination is the resumption of growth of
the seed (change from arrested development
to active growth).
• It is the emergency and development from
the seed embryo of those essential structures
that make a seedling.
Seed physiology…
• Seed germination…
Seed physiology…
Conditions for germination.
• Germination requirements are;
i) Water: the seed must be supplied with
adequate moisture to dilute its contents eg.
Stored food and to soften the seed coat
(testa).
Seed physiology…
Conditions for germination…
ii) Oxygen: sufficient oxygen is required by the
cells for respiration. During respiration the
food substances such as glucose are broken
down to release energy needed for cell
division. The recommendation that seedbed
should be loose and the seed planted at a
shallow depth aims at adequate supply of
oxygen.
Seed physiology…
iii) Temperature: The optimum temperature for most
seeds is between 30 oC -35 oC. At low temperature the
enzymes become inactive while at high temperature
enzymes will be denatured, hence seed will not
germinate. Therefore, temperature requirements
varies with plant species. Cold resistant plants have a
minimum temperature of 0 oC – 5 oC and optimal
temperature of about 28 oC – 30 oC. cold sensitive
plants have their optimum in the range of 30 oC -35 oC.
Seed physiology…
iv) Light: especially red and far red light affects
germination of some seeds. In many seeds
which require light, gibberellins can replace
light and stimulate germination.
Seed physiology…
Phases of seed germination
The germination process is divided into three
phases;
• imbibitions phase
• saturation phase (lag period)
• growth phase
Seed physiology…
Phases of seed germination…
i. Imbibitions (phase I)
• The seed, first imbibe (absorb) water, the
tissues swell and the seed coat becomes soft
and elastic. When the seeds imbibe water,
various substances gasses, salts sugars are
driven out and their uptake increases. Oxygen
is necessary for the breakdown of food
reserve.
Seed physiology…
ii.Saturation (phase II)
• During this phase, preparation for germination
takes place whereby mobilization of food
reserve starts after the onset of germination.
The reserve food is mainly meant for the
growth of the seedling.
Seed physiology…
iii. Growth (phase III)
• The swelling of the seed by imbibitions causes
the testa to split open easing growth. Depending
on the species, visible germination can occur
several hours or days after imbibitions phase. The
radical grows downward between the soil
particles while the plumule emerges and grows
upwards the soil surface.
Seed physiology…
• Seed germination test
• Germination test shall be conducted with a
pure seed fraction.
• A minimum of 400 seeds are required in 4
replicates of 100 seeds each or 8 replicates of
50 seeds each or 16 replicates of 25 seeds
each depending on the size of seed and size
of the containers of substrate.
Seed physiology…
GERMINATION PERCENTAGE
• The germination percentage is the proportion of
seeds that germinate from all seeds subject to
the right conditions for growth.
• It is an estimate of the viability of a population of
seeds.
Mathematically;
• Germination %(GP) = germinated seed x 100%
Total number of seeds
Seed physiology…
Procedure for germination test of a seed;
• Obtain a Petri dish and a filter paper
• Select a seed source and record the name
• Count out 50- 400 seeds(fewer if large seeds)
and soak them in water for about an hour
Seed physiology…
Procedure for germination test of a seed…
• Spread the seeds on 2-3 layer of filter paper in
the Petri dish
• Moisten the paper with enough water(about
10 mls) so just barely begin to float
• Put on the lid cover the seeds with wet filter
paper and place the dish in the dark (safe
place)
Seed physiology…
Procedure for germination test of a seed…
• Record the number of seeds that germinate
daily for 5-7 days(according to germination
duration of the seed in question)
• Use the formula above to calculate the
germination percentage of the seeds
Seed physiology…
EVALUATION OF THE SEEDLINGS;
• At the end of the test, evaluation will take
place in order to classify the germinated
seedlings and non germinated seeds.
• This will be done as follows;
Seed physiology…
Evaluation of the seedlings…
i) Normal seedlings
• Are those seedlings that show potential for
continued development when the grown in
good quality soil(media/substrate) under
favourable conditions of moisture, temperature
and light.
• The seedlings have well developed radicals and
plumules.
Seed physiology…
• Evaluation of the seedlings…
ii) Abnormal seedling
• Are those seedlings, which fail to show the
potential to develop into a normal plant,
when grown in good quality soil
(media/substrate) under favourable
conditions of moisture, temperature and light.
Seed physiology…
iii) Dead seeds
• These are seeds, which at the end of test
period are neither fresh nor hard, not showing
any sign of germination.
Seed physiology…
iv) Fresh and ungerminated
• These are dormant seeds, which even after
soaking and at the end of the test remain firm.
• These are not dead seeds, but will germinate
if dormancy is overcome naturally or by using
artificial methods
Seed physiology…
• Roles/importance of seed germination
percentage;
• To asses seed quality and viability attributes of
the seed lots which have to be offered for
sale. It determines if seed meets established
quality standards or labeling specifications.
• It provides a basis for price and prevents
consumer discrimination among lots in the
market.
Seed physiology…
• Roles/importance of seed germination
percentage…
• To predict the performance of the seed and seedling
in the field. Germination rate of a particular seed lot
is a key indicator as to how that seed will perform in
the field.
• The information is important for calculating optimal
seedling rates as well as helping to determine
whether a particular seed lot has the potential to
produce a good crop.
Seed physiology…
Seed purity test…
• Pure seed is a seed free from admixtures of all
kinds such as weed seeds, seeds from other
crops and inert matters.
Seed physiology…
Procedure for seed purity test:
• i. Take and mix a representative sample of
seeds from the top, middle and bottom of the
bag or container.
• ii. Weigh a convenient amount of seeds from
the sample by using a weighing scale.
• iii. Sort to separate the seeds from admixtures
Seed physiology…
Procedure for seed purity test…
• iv. Weigh the admixtures. Where the
admixtures are too small to be weighed on
available weighing scales, the pure seed
should be weighed and weight of admixtures
obtained by difference.
Seed physiology…
Procedure for seed purity test…
• v. Calculate Percentage pure seed using the
formula below;
Percentage Purity = Weight of seed sample – Weight of admixtures X 100%

Weight of seed sample
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BREEDING:
DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS:
• Genetics: Is the study of biologically inherited
traits, genes that are transmitted from parents
to offspring determining these traits.
• Gene: Is the hereditary unit containing genetic
information. Gene is located on the
chromosome at a specific location called
locus. These are made up of DNA
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT
BREEDING…
DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS…
• Chromosome: is a DNA molecule containing
genes in linear order to which numerous
proteins are bound.
• Phenotype: is any detectable feature
(external or physical appearance) of living
organism. Eg. Tall, white, wrinkled etc
• Genotype: is the genetic constitution (make
up) of an individual. e.g TT, Tt, tt
BREEDING…
• Alleles: Different forms of a gene that can be
at a locus in a chromosome.
Eg. TT, Tt, tt, BB,Bb, bb etc
• Allele: is one of a pair of alternative forms of a
gene.
E.g. in gene Tt, ‘T’ is one allele and ‘t’ is another
allele.
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BREEDING…
• DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS…

• Homozygous: is a state where an organism
has two identical alleles of the same gene,
which control a particular feature. e.g. TT for
tallness and tt for shortness.
• Heterozygous: is a state of an organism
having two different alleles that control a
particular character/feature. e.g. Tt, T for
tallness and t for shortness.
BREEDING…
• Dominant: is the allele that becomes effective in
the phenotype when the two alleles of one gene
are in a cell.
• Eg. In gene Tt the organism appear to be tall,
therefore; allele T is dominant over allele t.
• Recessive: an allele that is not expressed in the
heterozygote. Eg. In Tt the organism is expressed
as tall and not short. It is expressed only in
homozygote (tt).
BREEDING…
• Plant breeding: Is the art and science of
changing the heredity of plants.
• Meiosis: Is the process (two cycles) of cell
division gives rise to four cells with half the
number of chromosomes (gametes).
• Heritability: Is a measure of the degree to
which a phenotypic trait can be modified by
selection
BREEDING…
• DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS…
• Heredity or hereditary is the process of
passing the traits and characteristics from
parents to offspring through gene. This is the
reason you look so much like your parents.
Hereditary material are DNA(deoxyribonucleic
acid) that is the main and RNA(ribonucleic
acid) that mostly plays the role of messenger
in higher organisms. CHROMOSOME-LOCUS-
GENE-DNA
BREEDING…
THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANT GENETICS AND
BREEDING:
• Improve yields
• Modification of crop genes results in high
yielding varieties in various crop species In
1977 Hybrid maize H6302 and H614 were
released at Southern Highland Research
Institute – UYOLE, Mbeya, which increased
the yield three folds.
BREEDING…
THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANT GENETICS AND
BREEDING…
• Improve quality
• Breeding works enhance production of
improved plant varieties capable of producing
better quality products. Example shape,
colour, size, and the nutritional quality and
flavor of cereal, legume, fruits and vegetables.
BREEDING…
THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANT GENETICS AND BREEDING…
• Resistance
• Production of plant varieties with resistance to
diseases, pests, frosts, drought, wind, lodging, soil
salinity and acidity. Many resistance varieties against
disease have been released in research centers which
help farmers to reduce production cost. Several more
varieties and clones are released with time for the
agronomic, entomological, pathological etc.. merits to
farmers.
BREEDING…
• THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANT GENETICS AND BREEDING…
• Adaptation
• Plant breeders adapt propagules (seeds,
cuttings, any planting materials) from one
production area into another area to increase
variability of a breeding programme.
BREEDING…
• THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANT GENETICS AND BREEDING…
• Maturity and growth habit
• Plant breeding enhances production of plant
varieties with altered maturity duration (time
from sowing to harvesting) and desired
growth habit. For example tillering ability in
rice,
BREEDING…
• VARIETY DEVELOPMENT.
• Variety is an assemblage of cultivated plants
which is clearly distinguished by any
characters(morphological, physiological,
cytological, chemical and others) and which when
produced (sexually or asexually) retains the
distinguishing characters. It is equivalent to
Cultivar(Cultivar is a plant bred by humans to
express distinct traits).
• Plant breeding is the art and science of
improving the heredity of the plants for the
benefits of man.
BREEDING…
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES/SEEDS PRODUCED
BY SEXUAL REPRODUCTION;
• Seeds produced by sexual reproduction are
classified according to the source of pollen that is
responsible for fertilization. The following are
categories:
i. Self pollinated seeds
• These are formed when the pollen that effects
fertilization is produced by the same plant as the
female gamete with which it unites to form a
zygote (seed)
BREEDING…
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES/SEEDS
PRODUCED BY SEXUAL REPRODUCTION…
ii. Cross pollinated seeds
• These are formed when the pollen of one
plant is responsible for fertilization of the
female gamete of another plant. eg. In maize
BREEDING…
Methods/agents of pollination
• Wind pollination:
is the pollination method where by pollen move
from anther to the stigma by the aid of wind.
Example crops are maize, Paddy, sorghum etc.
Pollen of wind pollinated flowers are light in
weight.
BREEDING…
• Insect pollination:
insects are main agents that help movement of
pollen from anther to stigma, Plants with
colored petals that produce nectar are mainly
pollinated by insects for example Legumes.
BREEDING…
• Water pollination:
water enables movement of pollen from anther
to stigma especially for aquatic plants like sea
weed.
BREEDING…
• Pollination by birds;
birds aid pollination especially of red flowers
which produce nectar, most of these flower
have no strong smell.
BREEDING…
Development of new variety should take into
consideration the following characteristics;
i.Productivity
• Obtaining higher yields from an improved
variety is one of the primary criteria to be
considered in breeding a variety.
BREEDING…
consideration the following characteristics…
ii.Adaptability
• A variety having wider environmental
adaptability is the preference of today’s
growers. The breeding program should aim at
developing varieties adaptable to wide
environmental conditions
BREEDING…
iii. Resistance
• Resistance or tolerance to diseases; insect pest,
drought, frost, shattering, lodging, alkalinity,
salinity, etc are important factors that need
attention in developing new varieties.
iv. Quality
• Product quality, determines the ultimate
acceptance of a variety by the consumers.
BREEDING…
v. Other characteristics (traits)
• There are many other traits that a breeder need
to consider such as suitability to machine
harvesting, change in the duration(earliness or
lateness), change in growth habits, colour and
flavour, firmness, dry matter content, seedless
ness and many others.
QUIZ!!!!!!!!!!
Development of new varieties considers
characteristics like productivity, adaptability,
resistance, quality and other traits.
• List any five (5) other traits (3 minutes)
BREEDING…
VARIETY DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES
A number of breeding techniques are used to
develop new varieties. These include;
• Introduction
• Selection
• Hybridization
• Genetic engineering
BREEDING…
Terminologies
i. Mass selection
• This is the selection method whereby a group
of similarly appearing plants are selected and
seeds are composited to form a new
population or variety
BREEDING…
Terminologies…
ii. Pedigree
• This is a diagram representing the familial
relationship among relatives (a record of
ancestors)
iii. Progeny test
• This is a test of the value for selective breeding of
an individual’s genotype by looking at the
offspring produced by different mating.
BREEDING…
Terminologies…
iv. Hybrid
• This is a product of a cross between
genetically unlike parents
v. Composite
• This is a population usually formed by a group
of plants that have certain characteristics
which make it different from other
populations.
BREEDING…
Terminologies…
vi. Genetic engineering
• This is the process of linking two DNA molecules
by in vitro manipulation for the purpose of
generating a novel organism with desired
characteristics.
vii. Pure line
• This is a plant population developed solely by self
pollination of a single homozygous plant.
BREEDING…
Heterosis or hybrid vigour
• This is the superiority in performance of
hybrid individuals compared to their parental
performance.
BREEDING…
Types and Measurements of heterosis;
• The performance of a hybrid relative to its
parents can be expressed in two ways;
i. Mid parent heterosis
• It is the performance of a hybrid compared
with the average performance of its parents.
BREEDING…
Types and Measurements of heterosis…
Mid parent heterosis can be calculated as;
Mid parent heterosis= F1- MP x 100 %
MP
• Where;
F1 = performance of hybrid
MP = average performance of parents
BREEDING…
Types and Measurements of heterosis…
ii. High parent heterosis
• It is a comparison of the performance the
hybrid with that of better or best parent in the
cross.
BREEDING…
High parent heterosis can be calculated as;
• High parent heterosis= F1- HP x 100 %
• HP
• Where;
• F1 = performance of hybrid
• HP = the performance of the better or best
parent
BREEDING…
Example; assume that the yield of a hybrid is 95
kg, that of parent 1 is 65 kg and that of parent
2 is 85 kg. Calculate
(a) Mid parent heterosis
(b) High parent heterosis
BREEDING…
plant breeding methods;
1. Introduction/ Germplasm collection
2. Selection
3. Hybridization
BREEDING…
plant breeding methods…
(1) Introduction
• Germplasm collection (introduction): Is a
process of collecting propagules (seeds,
cuttings, any planting materials) from one
production area into another area to increase
variability of a breeding programme.
BREEDING…
(1) Introduction…
• The initial step in plant breeding is to introduce
from numerous sources plat varieties which are
currently grown in other countries and to identify
from these introductions varieties which are
adapted locally.
• The testing is carried out in different agro
climatic conditions and depending upon the
performance, the superior ones are
recommended as new varieties.
BREEDING…
(1) Introduction…
• The varieties with the best ecological
adaptation in certain areas/countries are
identified and adopted by farmers and
unadapted ones are dropped from production
• It is the cheapest method of obtaining varieties
for economically less developed countries
BREEDING…
(1) Introduction…
• The improved varieties (open pollinated) can
be obtained through public research stations,
international research institution and private
companies
BREEDING…
(2) Selection
• Selection involves choosing (sorting) and
collecting the best individual plants from a mixed
population for the purpose of growing a better
crop.
• It is one of the most commonly practiced
methods in the improvement of open pollinated
varieties in many parts of the world.
• The method can be very useful for improvement
of varieties of indigenous crops in Tanzania.
BREEDING…
I. Mass Selection
• This is a selection method whereby a group of
similarly appearing desired plants are selected
from a mixed population and the seeds are
composited to form a new population or
variety.
•
BREEDING…
The procedure for mass selection.
• First year: select a few to hundreds of plants
with similar desirable phenotypes, harvest
and composite the seeds of all harvested
plants.
• Second year: Grow in preliminary yield trial
and compare with standard varieties as check.
The original population from which selection
was made should also included as a check.
BREEDING…
The procedure for mass selection…
• Third to sixth year: Continue with yield tests
to determine the performance and adaptation
of the new population using the checks as
above.
• Seventh year: Increase seed for distribution
BREEDING…
Advantages of Mass selection
• i. It is a rapid breeding method
• ii. It is a cheap procedure for increasing the
frequency of desired genotypes in a
population.
BREEDING…
Disadvantages of mass selection as a breeding
method;
• i. It is not possible to know whether the plants
being selected are homozygous or
heterozygous for specific dominant
characters. As the heterozygous individual
may segregate in the following generation
further selection may need to be repeated.
BREEDING…
method…
ii. Since selection is purely based on phenotypic
expression of the individuals it is not possible
to determine whether the selected phenotype
is superior in appearance due to hereditary
character or environment.
BREEDING…
method…
iii. The effectiveness of mass selection of mass
selection depends on the heritability of the
character on a plant or seed. It is of limited
value for characters of low heritability.
BREEDING…
II. Pure line selection
• This is a method in which the new variety is
made up of a single strain obtained by
successive self fertilization.
The procedure for pure line selection.
• First year: select 200 to 1000 plants from a
genetically mixed population of an old variety.
BREEDING…
The procedure for pure line selection…
• Second year: Grow the seeds in progeny rows.
Harvest superior progenies and composite
seeds from plants within each row. Each of
the composited seeds then becomes an
experimental strain.
• Third year: Grow strains in preliminary yield
trial.
BREEDING…
The procedure for pure line selection…
• Fourth to Seventh year: Continue with yield
tests using standard varieties as a control.
• Eighth year: Increase seed of outstanding
selection for increase and distribution to
farmers if found better than the control
variety.
BREEDING…
(3) Hybridization
• This is a plant breeding technique where two
plants of different genetic constitution of the
same species are crossed and variation is
created for further selection to obtain
desirable plant types.
BREEDING…
(3) Hybridization…
• Through hybridization, a plant breeder can
produce a variety (open pollinated or hybrid)
with many economically desirable traits
including disease resistance.
• Hybridization is applicable to both self and
cross pollinated crop species.
BREEDING…
Main steps of hybridization for open pollinated
Variety Development:
i.Select the parents of desired characters from
the available plant materials
ii.Self the parents in case of cross pollinated
crops to develop uniform inbred line.
BREEDING…
Variety Development…
iii. Emasculate the female parent to prevent
selfing
iv. Bag and tag the males and females to be
crossed
v. Cross the males and females and bag and tag
the crossed flowers
BREEDING…
Variety Development…
vi. Label the flowers indicating type of crosses
and dates
vii. Collect the seeds from the crossed plants
viii. Handle the subsequent generation (F1.- F6)
by using bulk and pedigree selection methods.
ix. Test, multiply and distribute the variety
BREEDING…
Basic tools required for hybridization work are;
• Labels, pollination bags, forceps, pencil,
staplers, oil paint, clips/pins, methylated spirit
and cotton wool or equivalent.
BREEDING…
Selection procedure after hybridization
• Two selection procedures are usually
employed after hybridization to sort the
desirable genotypes from the segregating
population.
• These are;
- pedigree and
- bulk selection methods.
BREEDING…
Selection procedure after hybridization…
I. Pedigree selection
• In this selection method, plants with desired
combination of characters are selected in the
F2 generation, and the progenies of each
selected plant reselected in succeeding
generations until genetic purity is attained.
BREEDING…
The procedure for pedigree selection method.
• F1 generation: grow a few F1 i.e 20 plants,
harvest and thresh. Before harvesting
eliminate plants that may have driven from
self pollination.
• F2 generation: grow about 3000 F2 plants,
select best F2 plants in best rows and keep
seeds of each plant/ row separately
BREEDING…
The procedure for pedigree selection method…
• F3 – F5 generation: grow progeny rows 25 –
30 plants, identify superior rows then select
and harvest 3 – 5 best plants within these
rows. At least 20 – 50 families may be
retained at end of the F5 generation.
BREEDING…
• F6 generation: grow families of rows. Uniform
families may be harvested together and the
seed bulked.
• F7 generation: grow a preliminary yield trial at
environmentally diverse location (eg. Regional
yield trial) to identify lines with a wide
adaptation of environments.
BREEDING…
• F8 – F10 generation: Most suitable lines are
tested for yield performance in comparison
with the standard varieties.
• On testing observe the height, maturity,
disease and insect resistance and other
characters. Any line appearing to be superior
to the control may be bulked and distributed
as a new variety.
BREEDING…
Advantages of the pedigree selection method
• i. If selection is effective, inferior genotypes
may be discarded in the early generations
• ii. This method may allow the breeder to
obtain genetic information which is not
possible in other breeding techniques.
BREEDING…
Disadvantages of the pedigree selection
method
• i. Pedigree method require more work and
careful record taking during early segregating
generation
• ii. It requires more experienced breeders
• iii. The method is expensive as it requires
more land and labour than other methods of
breeding.
BREEDING…
II. Bulk population selection method
• In this method, desired plants from the
crossed population are selected, collected and
bulked and multiplied up to 5 or 6
generations. The number of bulking
generation depends upon the nature of the
cross or upon the breeder.
BREEDING…
The procedure for bulk population selection
method
• F1 generation: grow a 50 – 100 F1 plants,
harvest and thresh. Before harvesting
eliminate plants that may have arisen from
self pollination.
• F2 generation: grow 2000 - 3000 F2 plants,
harvest and bulk seed from all plants.
BREEDING…
method…
• F3 – F4 generation: grow 1 – 1 hectare plots
50 100
from bulk seeds harvested from the preceeding
generations.
• F5 generation: space plants 3000 – 5000
seeds and selects 300 – 500 superior plants.
BREEDING…
method…
F6 generation: grow a progenies of selected
plants in separate rows and harvest 30 – 50
rows that combine desirable characters.
BREEDING…
method…
F7 generation: grow preliminary yield trial
F8 – F10 generation: Yield trial are continued as
in the pedigree selection procedure
F11 – F 12 generation: increase seeds of most
suitable lines and distribute as new variety.
BREEDING…
Advantages of bulk population selection method
i. Simple, convenient and cheap.
ii. Less work is required during the early segregating
populations than with the pedigree procedure.
iii. Natural selection is permitted to occur which can
increase the frequency of desirable genotypes
iv. It is efficient for characters with low heritability
BREEDING…
Disadvantages of bulk population selection
method
i. Desirable genotypes may be lost from the
population
ii. Little information is gained during early
generation while segregating genotypes are
being advanced.
BREEDING…
BACK CROSS
Back cross is a cross between a member of the
offspring to one of the parental lines.
• Back cross is a form of recurrent hybridization by
which a gene may be added to an otherwise
desirable variety.
• The objective is to incorporate through a series
of back crosses the character needed without
changing the genotype of the agronomically
desirable variety.
BREEDING…
Back cross…
• For example: Consider a hypothetical cross in
which genes for stem rust resistance (RR) are
to be added to an adapted high yielding
variety A of wheat.
BREEDING…
The Procedure for back crossing:
i. The donour (resistant) variety is crossed to the
recurrent (adapted) variety A. The F1
generation from this cross will be segregating
for the rust resistance (RR: rr)
BREEDING…
The Procedure for back crossing…
ii. The Rr plants may be identified from the rr
plants by inoculating the seedling plants with
the rust pathogen and observing whether the
plants exhibit resistant or susceptible disease
reactions.
BREEDING…
iii. Back cross the resistant plants (Rr) to variety
A in the second and succeeding back cross
generations.
iv. After the final back cross the resistant (Rr)
plants are selfed one generation to obtain
homozygous RR and heterozygous Rr resistant
plants.
BREEDING…
v. Progeny test of the resistant (RR and Rr)
plants are grown to identify the homozygous
(RR) from the heterozygous (Rr) plants, so that
lines homozygous for resistance may be
established and released as a new variety.
BREEDING…
COMPOSITE (OPEN POLLINATED) FORMATION
• Composite as the name implies, are groups of
open pollinated varieties, inbred or other
germplasm units that are pooled in same
manner.
• Original entries with composite are not
maintained for reconstituting the composite
and new entries may be inserted.
BREEDING…
The Procedure for composite formation:
i. A germplasm pool adapted to various climatic
conditions is formed and their families are
crossed in isolation and evaluated to obtain
recombination among the parental families.
• Each families is planted separately so that it
will serve as a seed plant
BREEDING…
The Procedure for composite formation…
ii. A mixture of seed from all parents is used as
the pollen parent
iii. From each family, superior ears are chosen to
provide seed for the next cycle.
• Families may be dropped, or new families
added with each cycle
BREEDING…
iv. Seeds from superior families are tested in
yield trials at several locations
v. The upper 10 % o families with the best
performance in the yield trials will be tested in
yield trials at multilocational sites.
BREEDING…
vi. Those with good performance are released as
cultivars.
• Examples of open pollinated varieties released
in Tanzania are Staha, Kito, TMVT2, Kilima ST,
Kito ST, Katumani ST
• Varieties with ST are tolerance to maize
streak virus disease
SEED PRODUCTION SYSTEM
• Seed production system represents
involvement and interconnection among
different organizations, institutions and
individuals associated with the development
of new varieties and producing, testing,
processing, storage, certifying and marketing
seed to farmers.
• SEED ACT REGULATES SEED INDUSTRY IN
TANZANIA(No 18 of 2003)
• An act to make provision for the control and
regulation of the standards for agricultural
seeds and for matters incidental thereto and
therewith. The purpose is to prescribe the
plant varieties and standard of the seeds for
importation, exportation, production,
processing and distribution.
SEED PRODUCTION…
SEED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Three seed production systems do exist in
Tanzania:
1.Formal seed production system
2.Semi formal seed production system(Quality
declared seed)
2. Informal seed production system
SEED PRODUCTION…
1. FORMAL SEED PRODUCTION SECTOR OR
SYSTEM
• This is a framework of institutions linked
together by their involvement in or influence
on the germplasm manipulation (breeding),
multiplication, processing, marketing and
quality control of seeds. , Its is characterized
with well coordinated components of a seed
industry to ensure a regular supply of large
amount of uniformly high quality of seed to
farmers.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The National Seed Committee
established/approved in 1994 whereas the
Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of
Agriculture is the chairperson.
• The National seed policy of 1994 seeks to
ensure a collaborative effort of both
government and private sector to achieve
national seed self – sufficiency.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Characteristics of formal seed sector.
i. Quality assurance.
ii. Planned seed production.
iii.Defined varieties from formal breeders.
iv.Mechanical processing of seeds.
v. Seed sold in labeled package.
SEED PRODUCTION..
• In Tanzania , the formal seed production is
now undertaken by,
i. Government Foundation Seed Farms-Official
seed production.
ii. Government Parastatal
Organization(TANSEED) semi official seed
production.
iii.Private Seed Companies-Private Seed
Production.
SEED PRODUCTION…
I. COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLETE FORMAL
SEED SECTOR/SYSTEM;
A. Plant breeding, variety assessment and
maintenance (Agricultural research);
• In Tanzania, both private and public sectors
have viable plant improvement programme
which are vital for the sustainability of a seed
industry.
SEED PRODUCTION…
I. COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLETE FORMAL SEED
SECTOR/SYSTEM;
A. Plant breeding, variety assessment and maintenance
(Agricultural research)…..
The main tasks of researchers are;
• The continuous development of improved plant varieties
to enhance productivity in various agro-ecological zones
of a country
• Evaluation of new promising varieties for Value for
Cultivation and use (VCU) and Distinctness Uniformity
and Stability (DUS).
• Tanzania Official Seed Certification Institute (TOSCI)
undertakes DUS and VCU tests.
SEED PRODUCTION…
I. COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLETE FORMAL
SEED SECTOR/SYSTEM;
A. Plant breeding, variety assessment and
maintenance (Agricultural research)…
The main tasks of researchers …
• Maintenance of their own varieties
• For locally variety development, evaluation,
release and maintenance of eligible varieties as
Pre-basic seed is done by the government crop
research stations, private seed companies and
Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA)
SEED PRODUCTION…
• In Tanzania, the National Agricultural
Research Service in crop has been divided into
eight (08) main centres namely:
• TARI ILONGA, Kilosa, Morogoro region. The
leading commodity crops researched on are
low altitude maize, sunflower,
sorghum/millet, grain legumes (except beans).
It also coordinates post harvest management.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• TARI TUMBI, Tabora region. The leading
commodity crops researched on are oil palm
and agro forestry.
• TARI UKIRIGURU, Mwanza region. The leading
commodity crop researched on is cotton, and
root and tuber crops (except Irish potatoes).
• TARI SELIAN, Arusha region. The leading
commodity crops researched on are wheat,
barley and medium altitude maize.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• TARI UYOLE, Mbeya region. The leading
commodity crops researched on are beans,
high altitude maize, irish potatoes and
pyrethrum. It also coordinates Agro
mechanization.
• TARI NALIENDELE, Mtwara region. The
leading commodity crops researched on are
cashew and oil crops (except sunflower).
SEED PRODUCTION…
• TARI MAKUTUPORA, Dodoma region. The
leading commodity crop researched on is
Viticulture.
• TARI MLINGANO, in Tanga region. The leading
commodity crops researched are Sisal, Soils
and water management, it also coordinates
soil laboratory services in the country.
SEED PRODUCTION…
B. Initial seed multiplication (multiplication of
released varieties from Pre – basic to
Foundation/ basic seed)
• This is done by seed farms of the government
and private seed companies.
• Initial increase of pre basic and basic seeds to
substantial quantities for further bulk production
is a necessary component to help attain required
see supply for the farming community.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Foundation/ basic seed)….
• Usually, multiplication of a variety is done
strictly under the supervision of the
originating breeder or institution basically to
safeguard variety propriety rights.
• It may be planned to cover several seasons
with provision of good storage
SEED PRODUCTION…
• This provision alleviates the risks of poor
weather, cut down production costs and
minimize isolation constrains.
• This pedigree seed is subject to certification
procedures as it forms the heart of seed
quality control.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The Ministry of Agriculture has five (05)
foundation seed farms, all allocated strategically
to serve the main agro-ecological zones namely:
• Arusha foundation seed farm, located at
Ngaramtoni, Arusha, multiplies crops suited from
mid-altitude to high lands like maize, wheat and
beans.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Foundation seed farms….
• Dabaga foundation seed farm, located at
Dabaga, Iringa, produced seeds for mid-
altitude to high lands like maize, wheat, beans
and soy beans.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Msimba foundation seed farm, located at
Kilosa, Morogoro, increases seeds for lowland
and mid-altitudes like maize, beans, cow peas,
green grams, sorghum, sunflower and millet.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Mwele foundation seed farm, located at
Maramba, Muheza, Tanga, produces seeds for
low land and mid-altitudes like maize,
sorghum, millets,ground nuts, sesame and
sunflower.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Kilangali foundation seed farm, located near
Kilosa, Morogoro, the only farm which
multiplies paddy/rice.
SEED PRODUCTION…
C. Bulk multiplication of seed from basic to the
grades Certified 1(C1) and Certified 2 (C2):
• The private seed companies undertake this
process through their contract
growers.Government seed farms also produce
C1 and C2.
SEED PRODUCTION…
D. Seed quality control:
• Seed quality control is an essential component
for protection of seed consumers from
possible exploitation by unscrupulous seed
merchants.
• Control involves monitoring of seed quality
throughout the various stages of production,
processing and marketing (Field inspection,
seed testing, pre and post control)
SEED PRODUCTION…
D. Seed quality control…
• Seed quality control services are backed up by
a suitable legislation, the seed act of 2003, in
order to ensure that seed reaching the
farmers is of the prescribed standards.
• A continuous supply of good quality seed of
improved varieties provides an excellent basis
towards improving crops production in the
interest of achieving food security.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed quality control can be performed by seed
enterprises through licensing scheme as their
personnel become competent after training.
• A comprehensive regulatory seed quality control
scheme where legislation is reinforced requires
well equipped laboratories for seed sampling and
inspection, seed testing, labelling and quarantine
operations for imported seeds.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The TOSCI is the only body allowed by the law
(i.e. The Seeds Act of 2003) to undertake
certification activities in the country.
• It has its headquarters in Morogoro with
branches in Tengeru, Arusha region, and Njombe,
Njombe region.
• The institute has a training programme after
which seed companies and individuals may be
licensed to undertake quality control of their own
seeds.
SEED PRODUCTION…
E. Processing and storage (seed conditioning)
• The private seed companies as well as
government seed farms undertakes
processing and storage.
SEED PRODUCTION…
F. Marketing
• Seed marketing and distribution are usually
performed by the seed companies through a
network of selling points or seed stockists.
SEED PRODUCTION…
G.SEED EXTENSION SERVICES:
• Seed extension is done by Government or
private seed companies to ensure that
farmers obtain maximum benefits from high
quality certified seeds which are suitable for
their growing conditions.
SEED PRODUCTION…
G.SEED EXTENSION SERVICES…
The main objectives of seed extension services
are:
• i. To inform farmers on the existence and
advantages of certified seed;
• This is the first process of seed promotion.
Farming community must be informed on new
findings which will help them to increase their
yields.
SEED PRODUCTION…
The main objectives of seed extension services…
ii. To convince farmers to use certified seed on
a large scale;
• An extension programme will have achieved
its objectives when the majority of farmers
accept the change and adopt the use of
improved seeds along with the recommended
techniques.
SEED PRODUCTION…
iii. To inform farmers of the ways and means for
the acquisition of certified seed;
• The extension workers must be aware of all the
possibilities of obtaining certified seeds and
advise farmers accordingly. Various players in the
seed programme include seed growers, seed
processors, seed merchants and farmers etc.
SEED PRODUCTION…
iv. To train farmers on recommended production
techniques for the cultivation of improved seed;
• The introduction of seed of improved varieties
necessitates the application of new production
techniques, such as sowing method, fertilizer
application, irrigation, pest treatment, harvesting
and various measures which have to be taken to
prevent seed from being mixed with other
varieties.
SEED PRODUCTION…
v. To establish an effective communication
between farmers using improved seed and
plant breeders;
• This plays an important role in providing seed
scientists with information from the field
which could be of great value to their research
programme.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• THE FORMAL SEED SECTOR - ORGANIZATION
STRUCTURE:
• (DIAGRAM)
SEED GRADES: THROUGH THE PRODUCTION STAGES:
SEED SOURCE SEED GRADE
Research (Breeder) Breeder seed or Pre-basic seed
Foundation seed farms Foundation/basic seeds
Contract growers (Seed farms/companies) Registered/Certified One (I)
Contract growers (Seed farms/companies) Registered/Certified Two (II)
Processing through seed companies All Certified seeds above

Stockists:
Farmers use
SEED PRODUCTION…
THE NEED FOR USE OF CERTIFIED SEED (SEEDS OF
IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SUPERIOR QUALITY)
i. Improved seed – a carrier of new technologies;
• The introduction of quality seeds of new varieties
wisely combined with other inputs significantly
increase yield levels.
• Improved seeds have been reported to have good
response to inputs especially fertilizers as compared to
local varieties.
• Therefore when they are supplied with recommended
amount of fertilizer, there is a guarantee of higher
potential yield.
SEED PRODUCTION…
IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SUPERIOR QUALITY…
ii. Improved seed – a basic tool for secured food
supply;
• The successful implementation of the high
yielding varieties will led to a remarkable
increase in food production, and food imports
from other countries have been brought down in
spite of rapid increase in population.
SEED PRODUCTION…
IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SUPERIOR QUALITY)….
iii. Improved seed – the principal means to secure
crop yields in less favorable areas of production;
• The supply of god quality seeds of improved
varieties suitable to these areas is one of the
important contributions to secure higher crop
yields.
SEED PRODUCTION…
IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SUPERIOR QUALITY)…
iv. Improved seed – a medium for rapid
rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural
disaster;
• In case of floods and drought affected areas, the
improved seeds may be used to rehabilitate the
agricultural production of foods grains in the
country.
SEED PRODUCTION…
THE NEED FOR USE OF CERTIFIED SEED (SEEDS
OF IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SUPERIOR
QUALITY)…
v. Low/reduced seed rate;
• Improved seeds have guaranteed high
germination percent hence reduced seeding
rate per unit area compared to local varieties.
SEED PRODUCTION…
THE NEED FOR USE OF CERTIFIED SEED (SEEDS
OF IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SUPERIOR
QUALITY)…
vi. Less infestation with seed borne diseases.
• The seeds of improved varieties are resistance
to seed borne diseases compared to local
varieties which are susceptible to seed borne
diseases.
• Question.
• Determine the seed rate of Maize in 4000m2
given that the spacing is 75 cm × 35 cm and
two seeds are sown per stand/hole. 100 seeds
weighs ---------- g and the germination
percentage of the seed is 95.
SEED PRODUCTION…
2. QUALITY DECLARED SEEED (QDS) PRODUCTION
OR SEMI-FORMAL SEED PRODUCTION SYSTEM:
• In the semi-formal system, some elements of
formal systems like limited quality control by the
Certification Institute are employed.
• The system is known by different names in
different countries such as community based
seed production system or On-farm seed
production system.
• In Tanzania the system is termed to as Quality
Declared Seed (QDS) Production System.
SEED PRODUCTION…
QUALITY DECLARED SEEED (QDS) PRODUCTION…
• QDS is a grade of seed produced by registered seed
growers whereas official seed quality control authority
exercises some limited quality control over the seed.
• FAO designated this system to provide quality control
during seed production which would be less
demanding n government resources than seed
certification.
• The system allows individual countries to make certain
adjustment to fit into a particular country situation. In
Tanzania, the system was adopted for use in the year
2001.
SEED PRODUCTION…
PRINCIPAL PONTS OF WHICH QDS
PRODUCTION BASED UPON:
• List of varieties eligible to be produced as
QDS is established.
• Seed producers are required to register with
the official seed quality control authority.
SEED PRODUCTION…
PRINCIPAL PONTS OF WHICH QDS
PRODUCTION BASED UPON…
• The official seed quality control authority will
inspect a minimum of 10 percent of the
registered seed crops for QDS production.
• The official seed quality control will test a
minimum of 10 percent of the seed samples
representing seed lots offered for sale
designated as QDS.
SEED PRODUCTION…
JUSTIFICATION OF QUALITY DECLARED SEEDS
(QDS) PRODUCTION IN TANZANIA:
• The QDS production was adopted in Tanzania
due to the following factors:
i. Unavailability of certified seed
• There has been several cases where seeds for
purchase has not been available to farmers at
the right place, time, quantity and of the right
variety.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Factors for adoption of QDS in Tanzania…
ii. Poor developed seed distribution network for
retailing of seed.
• Production of QDS in Tanzania aims at increasing
the supply of good quality seed especially in
areas far from certified seed supply network.
iii. High price of certified seed
• Most farmers are not able to buy seed (improved
seeds) because of their poor financial ability. This
is largely attributed by low production and poor
markets
SEED PRODUCTION…
iv. Limited production of seed of food security
importance.
• Production of QDS in Tanzania aims at
improving food security in households of such
farmers through the use of good quality seeds
SEED PRODUCTION…
v. Less demanding on government resources
• QDS provide quality control during seed
production which is less demanding on
government resources for 90% quality control
SEED PRODUCTION…
TERMS USED IN QDS PRODUCTION SYSTEM:
i. Maintainer’s seed
• This is a seed from a registered source which
can be of basic, certified 1 and certified 2.
• It is used to produce first generation of QDS.
SEED PRODUCTION…
TERMS USED IN QDS PRODUCTION SYSTEM..
i.Maintainer’s seed …
• When the source used is basic the product is
QDS 1
• The first generation of QDS (QDS 1) can be
used to produce QDS 2 and be sold to farmers
SEED PRODUCTION…
i. Maintainer’s seed …
• If the source is C1 or C2 the product is QDS 2,
and cannot be used as seed for further QDS
production.
• NOTE: No hybrid seed shall be produced
under QDS in Tanzania
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed producer – any small scale farmer or
group of small scale farmers fulfilling the
requirements outlined in the QDS guidelines.
• Seed trader - any small scale farmer or group
of small scale farmers who offers seed for sale
under the designation of QDS.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed conditioning – post-harvest treatment of
seeds which may include drying, cleaning and
chemical or other post-harvest operations.
• Off-types – plant or seeds which do not
conform to the characteristics of the variety.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed quality supervisor – a person nominated
and trained by the National Seed Quality
Control and Certification Authority to
represent the authority at district or any
administrative level in the control of quality
markets.
SEED PRODUCTION…
ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY TOSCI IN SEED
QUALITY CONTROL OF QDS:
i. Monitoring of QDS
• The first responsibility of TOSCI is to monitor
all activities under the Quality Declared Seed
(QDS) production system.
• In this system registered companies or
individual farmers are allowed to produce
seeds under acceptable standards.
SEED PRODUCTION…
ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY TOSCI IN SEED QUALITY
CONTROL OF QDS…
ii. Registration of QDS producers
• TOSCI is responsible to establish a register of
authorized QDS producers and to make sure
no seeds from unauthorized producers enter
to seed market. It receive and review
application from the growers and finally
register them.
SEED PRODUCTION…
CONTROL OF QDS…
iii. Check/inspect
• TOSCI is responsible to check/inspect a
proportion of seed crops and test a proportion
of seeds offered for sale as QDS and to declare
its quality.
SEED PRODUCTION…
CONTROL OF QDS…
iv. Seed law enforcement
• TOSCI has authority of taking appropriate
action against seed producers or registered
quality supervisors, seed traders when there is
evidence that QDS offered for sale is below
standards.
SEED PRODUCTION…
GUIDELINES TO QDS PRODUCTION
A. Registration of QDS producers:
• The producer must register with the official
control authority. In Tanzania the Official
Control authority is TOSCI
SEED PRODUCTION…
In order to qualify/be eligible for registration,
a seed producer must fulfil the following:
• Have access to seed which is of the variety
suitable for further multiplication (basic, C1 or
C2).
• Have suitable land for QDS as stipulated in
QDS production guidelines for the crop
species.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Have basic knowledge and skills in seed
production in order to manage control over
production and other post harvest
procedures.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Have access to authorized seed quality control
supervisors for inspection and testing.
• Have access to appropriate or basic
equipment and facilities for seed conditioning
and storage.
• Have access to TOSCI’s seed testing laboratory
or laboratories accredited by TOSCI with
trained personnel for testing germination,
purity and moisture content.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• In Tanzania seed testing will continue to be
done by TOSCI only until the advent of
laboratories which will be accredited by
TOSCI.
SEED PRODUCTION…
B. Production of QDS
Procedure for production of QDS;
i. Site selection;
• Ensure that the seed production fields have
satisfactory previous cropping histories for the
proposed seed crops and the seed to sow is
eligible to produce QDS.
SEED PRODUCTION…
B. Production of QDS…
Procedure for production of QDS…
ii. Seed growing and management;
• Ensuring that the seed crop is well grown and
arranging for remedial measures to be
undertaken such as rouging as may be
necessary
SEED PRODUCTION…
iii. Seed field inspecting;
• Inspecting the seed fields according to the
procedures outlined in the appropriate crop
standards and ensuring that only those which
meet the standards are approved.
SEED PRODUCTION…
iv. Maintenance of the seed identity;
• Ensuring that the identity of the seed at
harvest is maintained and that it is delivered
for conditioning in identified containers.
SEED PRODUCTION…
v. Post harvest, processing and storage;
• Ensuring that seed conditioning is performed
in such a way as to maintain varietal purity
and viability of the seed.
SEED PRODUCTION…
C. Sampling and submitting samples for quality
tests
• Seed sampling is a process of drawing small
quantities of seed in a defined sequence
(randomly) from different parts of the seed
container(s) and of a seed lot for use in quality
tests.
SEED PRODUCTION…
tests…
• Appropriate samples will be drawn in
accordance with sampling procedures by
TOSCI staff and seed quality supervisors and
submitted by the same for testing in the TOSCI
laboratory or one accredited by TOSCI.
SEED PRODUCTION…
tests…
• Ensure that only seed lots for which
laboratory results show that the standards
specified for the crop are met before
permitting the seed to be designated as QDS.
SEED PRODUCTION…
D. Record keeping:
• Keeping records of all activities such as
quantities produced, inputs used, dates of
essential activities, production costs,
inspection days, test results and completing
the Quality Declared Seed Declaration form
and the quality test result document.
• The producer should have a record book of
visitors and their comments written.
SEED PRODUCTION…
E. Seed testing:
• Seed testing will be performed by TOSCI
laboratory or one accredited by TOSCI.
SEED PRODUCTION…
F. Labelling;
• QDS shall be labelled when offered for sale
and the label shall be affixed or the
information printed directly on the container.
SEED PRODUCTION…
F. Labelling…
The following information should at least be
shown on the label:
• The crop species
• The name of the variety
• The word “Quality Declared Seed”
• A reference number of the seed lot
• The name of the seed producer
• Details of any chemical treatment
SEED PRODUCTION…
Note;
• Labels shall be attached in such a way it is
impossible for them to be re- used once have
been removed.
• Containers should be fastened or sealed
according to national requirements
SEED PRODUCTION…
G. Declaration of seed quality of QDS
• Seed lots that pass the quality test will be
registered as QDS.
• A declaration will be completed for each seed lot
by the registered producer and made available to
TOSCI
• When it is evident that the laid down procedures
on QDS are not fulfilled, actions in a form of
penalties can be taken. The offence and their
respective penalties are clearly stipulated in the
Seed Act of 2003.
SEED PRODUCTION…
IN QDS PRODUCTION SYSTEM, THESE
PENALTIES ARE:
• A person found to be using the term QDS
wrongly is guilty of an offence and liable to an
appropriate penalty.
• A seed crop found at check/inspection to be
below standards should not be permitted to
be harvested as seed.
SEED PRODUCTION…
QDS PRODUCTION PENALTIES…
• Seeds offered for sale when it is shown to be
below standards should be withdrawn from
the market.
• Persistent/very flagrant breaches of standards
will be penalised by withdraw of registration
from the seed producer.
SEED PRODUCTION…
GENERAL CRITERIA FOR SELECTING QDS
FARMERS:
• Farmers in areas where seed availability and
distribution network is not reliable, missing or
non existence.
• Markets for the seed around the farmers exist.
• Have access to authorized quality control
supervisor.
SEED PRODUCTION…
SPECIFIC CRITERIA FOR SELECTING QDS
FARMERS:
• Farmer is socially acceptable in social system
to allow the marketing of seed.
• Have suitable land for the crop with
consideration to isolation.
SEED PRODUCTION…
SPECIFIC CRITERIA FOR SELECTING QDS
FARMERS…
• Ready to be trained (trainability) and accept
advice on QDS production.
• A faithful farmer and hard-working person.
• Have basic facilities and equipment to handle
the seed crop to the required standards
SEED PRODUCTION…
ADVANTAGES OF QDS PRODUCTION SYSTEM:
• Make use of limited technical resources within
the seed industry without sacrificing seed
quality.
• In Tanzania it is used by small scale farmers
and small farmer groups to produce good
quality seed of improved varieties, for sale in
their own localities and in neighbouring
communities.
SEED PRODUCTION…
ADVANTAGES OF QDS PRODUCTION SYSTEM…
• It encourages and places emphasis on the
seed growers to market their own seed, thus
introducing seed grower to entrepreneurship.
• Simple seed production techniques can be
used to cut down production costs.
• Reduced overhead costs which make the QDS
price comparatively low.
SEED PRODUCTION…
LIMITATIONS OF QDS PRODUCTION SYSTEM:
• Need an effective participation of seed quality
control authority to monitor the system
• An infective seed quality control authority to
monitor the system through 10 percent
check will jeopardise the seed quality
• Some specific requirements or standards like
land and isolation for some crops may be
difficult to achieve.
SEED PRODUCTION…
2. INFORMAL SEED PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Definition: This is an unorganized system of
seed supply in which the various operations
have neither regulations nor seed quality
control.
• It is the major source of seed in many
developing countries. In Tanzania, it accounts
for about 90 percent of the seed sown.
SEED PRODUCTION…
2. INFORMAL SEED PRODUCTION SYSTEM…
• It involves the use of farmer saved seed and
seed distributed through a variety of informal
transfer and exchange mechanisms.
The informal seed system is also referred as;
• A farmer managed system
• A traditional seed system
SEED PRODUCTION…
THE CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF AN
INFORMAL SEED SYSTEM/SECTOR:
• Small scale crop production after which a little
amount of grain is stored as seed
• Production and seed quality are not officially
controlled even if improved varieties are
introduced, recycling goes on for a long time,
and hence genetic purity is almost lost
SEED PRODUCTION…
THE CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF AN
INFORMAL SEED SYSTEM/SECTOR…
• Seed source (varieties used) may consist of
landraces, farmers own selection, in some cases
eligible varieties
• A wide range of exchange mechanisms between
individuals or households (such as gifts, barter
systems, and purchase of produce of at local
market) are used to transfer the seed based on
social obligation
SEED PRODUCTION…
PROCEDURES IN SEED PRODUCTION IN THE
INFORMAL SECTOR:
• Selection of the crop plants of desirable traits.
• Land preparation followed by crop
establishment.
• Management of the crop in the field.
SEED PRODUCTION…
PROCEDURES IN SEED PRODUCTION IN THE
INFORMAL SECTOR…
• Harvesting when seed is mature.
• Processing that is threshing, drying and
cleaning the seed.
• Apply storage pesticides and store the seed.
• Dispose (use, sale) the seed when need arises
SEED PRODUCTION…
ADVANTAGES OF INFORMAL SEED
PRODUCTION SYSTEM:
• There is a wide range of variety exchange of
mechanisms between individuals and
households which includes cash and barter
systems.
• Farmers produce seeds for desired variety and
clone.
SEED PRODUCTION…
ADVANTAGES OF INFORMAL SEED
PRODUCTION SYSTEM…
• Seeds are available at right time and it is
relatively cheap.
• Seed production is cheap as does not need
elaborate planning and expensive investment.
SEED PRODUCTION…
LIMITATIONS OF INFORMAL SEED
PRODUCTION SYSTEM:
• The genetic seed quality referred is not always
optimal for crop production.
• Quickly changing needs of farmers cannot be
catered for due to the slow process of local
and natural selection.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Farmers' practice can also lead to non
intentional selection for characteristics that
are not preferred.
• Poor storage conditions resulting in low
germination, this hinders crop production.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Low knowledge on seed transmitted pests can
lead to accumulation of pathogens thus
disease pressure on crops.
• The absence of quality control of seeds put
farmers at risk situation of losing a crop due to
poor germination.
SEED PRODUCTION…
REASONS FOR FARMERS TO USE OWN SAVED
SEEDS/INFORMAL SEEDS:
• Limited marketing options and facilities
• Low awareness and low acceptance
• High seed prices
• Poor accessibility of formal seeds due to poor
infrastructure
• Low purchasing power within many farmers
PLANNING FOR SEED PRDUCTION:
• Production planning means to fix the
production goals and to estimate the
resources which are required to achieve these
goals.
• It prepares a detailed plan for achieving the production goals
economically, efficiently and in time.
• It forecasts each step in the production process.
• It forecasts the problems, which may arise in the production
process.
• It tries to remove these problems. It also tries to remove the
causes of wastage
SEED PRODUCTION…
PLANNING FOR SEED PRDUCTION:
• The aim of planning is to have the required
amount of seed at the right time, the right
place and at the most economic costs.
• Planning for seed production has to be well
coordinated otherwise it is costly and
wasteful.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Planning process is simple when is for annual
seed production particularly of certified seed
grade because with foundation seed in hand,
planning is only for a season.
• The planning process becomes difficult when
the market demands seed of a newly released
variety.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The planning becomes even complex when
planning for the production of hybrid like
double crosses composed of many inbred
lines.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The need, main functions/importance or
objectives of production planning are as
follows:
• 1. Effective utilization of resources
• Production planning results in effective
utilization of resources, plant capacity and
equipment. This results in low-cost and high
returns for the organization.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Main functions/importance or objectives of
production planning are as follows…
• 2. Steady flow of production
• Production planning ensures a regular and
steady flow of production. Here, all the
machines are put to maximum use. This
results in a regular production, which helps to
give a routine supply to customers.
SEED PRODUCTION…
production planning are as follows….
• 3. Estimate the resources
• Production planning helps to estimate the
resources like man power/labour, materials,
etc. The estimate is made based on sales
forecast. So production is planned to meet
sales requirements.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 4. Ensures optimum inventory
• Production planning ensures optimum inventory. It
prevents over-stocking and under-stocking.
Necessary stocks are maintained. Stock of raw
material is maintained at a proper level in order to
meet the production demands. Stock of finished
goods is also maintained to meet regular demands
from customers.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 5. Coordinates activities of departments
Production planning helps to coordinate the

activities of different departments. For example
the marketing department coordinates with
production department to sell the goods. This
results in profit to the organization.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 6. Minimize wastage of raw materials
• Production planning minimizes wastage of
raw materials. It ensures proper inventory of
raw materials and materials handling. This
helps to minimize wastage of raw material. It
also ensures production of quality products or
goods.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 7. Improves the labour productivity
• Production planning improves the labour
productivity. Here, there is maximum
utilization of manpower. Training is provided
to the workers. The profits are shared with
the workers in form of increased wages and
other incentives. Workers are motivated to
perform their best.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 8. Helps to capture the market
• Production planning helps to give delivery of
goods to customers in time. This is because of
regular flow of quality production. So the
company can face competition effectively, and
it can capture the market.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 9. Provides a better work environment
• Production planning provides a better work
environment to the workers. Workers get
improved working conditions, proper working
hours, leave and holidays, increased wages
and other incentives. This is because the
company is working very efficiently.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 10. Facilitates quality improvement
• Production planning facilitates quality
improvement because the production is
checked regularly. Quality
consciousness/awareness is developed among
the employees through training, suggestion
schemes, quality circles, etc.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 11. Results in consumer satisfaction
Production planning helps to give a

regular supply of goods and services to the
consumers at far prices. It results in consumer
satisfaction.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• 12. Reduces the production costs
• Production planning makes optimum

utilization of resources, and it minimizes
wastage. It also maintains optimum size of
inventories. All this reduces the production
costs.
SEED PRODUCTION…
GENERAL FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN
PLANNING FOR SEED PRODUCTION:
• Quantity of seed in demand.
• Yield potential of the variety.
• Multiplication factor.
• Seed rate to determine optimal plant
population.
• Amount of carry over stock during planting.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• SPECIFIC FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN
PLANNING FOR A VARIETY MULTIPLICATION:
• The quantities of pre-basic/ breeder seed
available
• Yield potentials of the inbred lines
• The planting pattern of the area.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Possibility of irrigation
• Size of the area for multiplication.
• Number of multiplication to be carried out per
year.
• Coordination with breeders/owners of pre-
basic seed of the variety
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR)
• This is defined as the capacity of which one
unit of seed can reproduce.
• For example seed multiplication ratio for
onion is 1:50 this means that 1kg of onion
seed can produce 50kg of onion seed in the
next generation.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR)…
• Knowledge of seed multiplication ratio is very
important for determining seed requirements
for different stages of seed multiplication.
• Knowledge of stages of seed multiplication
and seed multiplication ratio will help in
planning for seed production .
• Seed multiplication ratio varies from species
to species and variety to variety.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed Multiplication:
• Multiplication factor is the number of
kilograms of good seed harvested from each
kilogram sown.
• Obviously it must differ from one crop species
to another, but even within a species there is
a wide range of variation between regions and
between individual growers.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed Multiplication…
• The seed multiplication factor depends on the
variety’s yield capacity, losses due to failure in
sowing, insect and diseases, rejection at field
inspection and at harvest atc.
• Generally it depends on fertility of the soil the
standard of management, the weather and
other agronomic factors
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed Multiplication …
• More particularly, it is influenced by the skill
of individual farmers in sowing the minimum
amount of the seed and harvesting as much as
possible in good condition.
• Example in maize more seed is obtained from
a double cross than from a single cross
because the female parent is itself a hybrid
and therefore more productive.
Seed Multiplication …
• Example:
• The multiplication factor for the maize hybrid
variety UH 615 is estimated to be about 20. If
you assume that the demand of maize variety
is 80,000 bags of 50kg per year and the pre-
basic seed available is 25kg. How long will it
take to multiply the variety to meet the
demand?
Seed Multiplication …
• Solution:
• Year: Available quantity
• 0 25kg
• 1 25kg*20=500kg
• 2 500kg*20=10,000kg
• 3 10,000kg *20=200,000kg
• 4 200,000kg*20=4000,000kg=80,000bags*50kgeach
• Therefore it will take 4 years to multiply the
variety to meet the demand of 80,000 bags of
seeds of 50kg each.
•
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The steps involved in the production of new
seed;
The steps involved in the production of a new
seed in Tanzania include:
i. A breeder develops a new variety
ii. The breeder requests permission from the
seed release committee to release the variety.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The steps involved in the production of new
seed…
iii. If successful the seed is certified as Breeder
seed. A sample is then sent to the Tanzania
Official Seed Certification Agency (TOSCI) for
tests and another sample is sent to foundation
seed farms for further tests and
multiplication.
iv. If TOSCI is satisfied, the seed qualifies as
Foundation seed
SEED PRODUCTION…
The steps involved in the production of new
seed…
v. The Foundation seed is tested again if found
to be all right; it is multiplied and sent to
TANSEED as certified seed.
From TANSEED or any other seed company,
farmers and extension agents can purchase
the seed for general sowing in the field.
SEED PRODUCTION…
VARIETY MAINTENANCE
• Variety maintenance is basically enhancement
of genetic existence of features of particular
plant cultivars without a change or being
changed in any form (distinct, uniformity)
• this is one of the most critical steps for

sustainability of a seed programme.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed programmes of many developing
countries have suffered a great deal due to
negligence in variety maintenance.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Pure cultivars are very expensive materials, an
inbreed line for example, may take a decade
or more before being produced in a breeding
program. Therefore it is a very great risk and
loss if such an important cultivar is foregone
due to carelessness of any sort.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Once a variety is developed and released to
the farmers through the seed supply system it
should continue producing true –to type seeds
generation after generation without changing
the original characteristics.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Factors responsible for deterioration of variety
purity
• Cross pollination
• Mechanical admixtures
• Mutation
• Segregation
• Genetic shift due to natural selection
• Diseases and pests infection
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Great care must be taken to avoid above
factors which cause deterioration in terms of
variety purity in the process of variety
maintenance.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Maintenance of a variety is a responsible for
the breeder or breeding institution or their
representative and they should supply the
breeder seeds to the multiplying channel of
the seed industry.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Isolation is the most important factors that
must be taken care of in the process of variety
maintenance.
• The isolation should be kept according the
rules of the crop in question
SEED PRODUCTION…
SITE SELECTION FOR SEED PRODUCTION:
• Ecological factors considered when selecting
site for seed production:
• RAINFALL: It is therefore important that seed
production is planned in such a way that the
crop is in the vegetative stage during rainy
season and ripening during dry season.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Most plants have a moisture sensitive stage
that during flowering many plants are at a
moisture sensitive stage. This is because root
growth is less at that time. It is therefore
essential that sufficient water is available
during flowering.
• High rainfall during crop ripening period
stage can reduce the quality of the seed
through moulding
SEED PRODUCTION…
• LIGHT: Sunlight has two important effects on
plants namely: Photosynthesis and day length,
the two has the effects as follows:
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Photosynthesis – is a process whereby light
energy received by green plants is used as the
energy source for the manufacturing of sugars
and related compounds, the more the
intensity of light the higher the rate of
photosynthesis within the limits of each crop
or plant species.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Day length – the flowering of many plants is
controlled by the light duration in each 24
hours day cycle, a phenomenon called
photoperiodism.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Following photoperiodism phenomena, plants
are categorized in three groups:
• (a)Short day plants – plants which require a
period of short days for flowering and do not
do so if the day length is longer than their
critical day length. The critical day length is
between 11 and 12 hours e.g. Soy beans
(Glycine max L.).
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Long day plants – these are plants which
flower when the light period is longer than
specific critical period, the critical day length
for most long day plants is between 12 and 14
hours, e.g. Spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.)
• (c ) Day neutral plants – plants whose flower
initiation is not controlled by day length.
•
SEED PRODUCTION…
• TEMPERATURE:
• Each crop has its optimum temperature
requirement for satisfactory growth and
development.
• Optimum temperature is defined as the
temperature range between which maximum
photosynthesis and normal respiration takes
place during the plant's life cycle.
•
SEED PRODUCTION…
There are three temperature groups related to
plant requirement:
• Low temperature - range between 07 – 13 0C,
best for vegetable crops like lettuce and
brassicas.
• Moderate temperature – range between 13 -
18 0C, best for dwarf beans, wheat and barley.
• High temperature – range between 18 – 24 0C,
best for maize and sorghum.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• SOILS: Aspects to be analysed:
• Soil texture
• Soil organic matter (SOM) content.
• Soil reaction (pH values).
• Essential minerals.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Properties of generally good soils are:
• Mechanical support, i.e. capable of supporting
mechanical operations
• Retain water for plant use but allow drainage of
excess water.
• Allow gaseous exchange for respiration by
roots.
• Retain and provide nutrients for satisfactory
plant growth and development.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• NB: Poorly drained soils are not suitable for
seed production except for low land
paddy/rice.
• V. AIR MOVEMENT (WIND):
• Wind is necessary ecological aspects for
normal nutrient absorption and facilitation of
pollination for anemophilous crop plants.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Excessive wind affects a seed crop due to the
following reasons:
• i) Increased evapotranspiration
• Wind increases crop water requirement by
increasing evapotranspiration due to removal
of accumulated humid air near the leaves.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• ii) Prevents maximum activity of pollinating
insects
• Moderate wind aids in effective pollination.
Heavy wind reduces the efficiency of
pollinating insects during flowering, it may
reduces pollination, causes flower shed and
decreases fruit set in all crops.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• iii) Shattering
• Strong wind increases the loss of seed by
shattering. This may reduce the quantity of
the seed as well as the yield of the seed crop.
For stance in rice/paddy.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• iv) Carries wind born pollen over long
distances
• Strong wind may carry the lighter pollen from
the crop in the field over long distances
outside the field. This may reduce the
effectiveness of the pollination as well as
number of fruits/seeds per plant.
SEED PRODUCTION…
v) Transmission of pests
• Strong wind may carry the pest and pathogens
from infected field to non infected seed field.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Other factors considered when selecting site
for seed production:
• VI. Lands history: The land to chosen should
be of a known history as land requirement
differ from crop to crop.
• production of a seed crop on the same piece
of land consecutively leads to the build up of
weeds, insect pests and pathogens.
SEED PRODUCTION…
VII. Adequate land to isolate seed crop:
• Isolation is the separation of a seed crop from all
possible source of contamination of different
varieties during multiplication.
• It ensures that cross pollination from other
varieties of the same species or inferior species
grade of the same crop mechanical admixtures at
harvesting, transmission of pests (insect pests and
diseases) from same crop or alternative host crop
are minimized.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Means to achieve isolation:
• Isolation by time – isolation of different
varieties or clones of the same seed crop
species by growing them at different time
without conceding to the flowering dates of
given crop variety or clone.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Isolation by displacement (distance) -
isolation of different varieties or clones of the
same seed crop species by distance from one
to another.
• Cross pollinated seed crops normally require
large isolation distances to avoid pollen
contamination.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Determination of isolation distance for insect
pollinated seed crops such as sunflower is
complicated.
• Self pollinated seed crops have little problems
in isolation than cross pollinated seed crops.
SEED PRODUCTION…
SOWING/PLANTING/ESTABLISHING A SEED
CROPS:
• For each seed crop requires certain methods
and architecture for establishment. The
following are examples of procedure of
establishing seed crops
SEED PRODUCTION…
• STEPS OF ESTABLISHING UPLAND RICE
(NERICA 1) SEED LOT.
• The field should be of fine tilth and all weed
plants removed out of the field.
• One of the methods used is dibbling whereas
7 seeds are sown per hole at the space of 12.5
cm x 30 cm and depth of 2 to 3 cm
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Second method is by drilling whereas a small
furrow is opened 2 to 3 cm deep and space is
1.8 cm from one plant x 30 cm row to row
with single seed is placed.
• The seeds should be firmly covered with soil.
Demo-Plot: A grid planting
Drilling Dibbling
30cm
Sow one seed per hill at Sow 7 seeds per hill at
1.8 cm intervals 12.5 cm intervals 379
SEED PRODUCTION…
• MAIZE SEED PRODUCTION- (Zea mays L.)
• Hybrid maize production;
• Hybrid is a product of a cross between
genetically unlike parents. The main feature of
a hybrid variety is uniformity or little
variability and heterosis.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• There are four kinds of hybrid maize:
• i. single cross;
• Formed by hybridizing two inbred lines e.g. A
xF
• ii. Three way cross;
• One of the parents is single cross and the
second is an inbred line e.g. (A x F) x G
SEED PRODUCTION…
iii. Double cross;
• Each of the component parents is a single
cross e.g. (A x F) x (D x G)
iv. Top cross;
• One of the component parent is a pure
composite Open pollinated e.g. (A x F) x
composite Ec 573
SEED PRODUCTION…
Site selection.
• Soil: Maize grows well on well drained soils
which have a good supply of nutrients at a PH
range of 4.5 – 7.0. It cannot tolerate water
logging.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Isolation distances: the crop is cross
pollinated and the recommended isolation
distances are as shown in the table below.
Isolation by time can also be practiced by
establishing crops at different sowing dates,
such that flowering differs by 28 – 30 days.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Cropping history: the maize seed crop shall
not be grown on land on which the previous
crop was maize unless it was of the same
variety. This requirement is necessary in order
to avoid the possibility of volunteer plants
arising from seed of the previous crop.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Specific techniques for hybrid maize seed lot
establishment:
• Female and male rows are sown at the ratio of
4:2 and/or 6:2 depending on the efficiency of
male to produce pollens.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Marking for identification of each of the
parent rows in the field/plot is very essential
to avoid confusion during other
managements. Male rows can be marked by
pegs during planting.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Synchronization of parental rows is that the
male parent may flower slightly late to allow
for enough period for the female parental
rows to stabilize in silking.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• If there is a reasonable difference in period of
flowering between the two parental rows,
sowing of one of the parents can be done at
different periods to respectively ensure that
flowering occur precisely at the same period.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed rate for female ranging from 16 to 18
Kg/Ha and male range from 6 to 7 Kg/Ha at
the spacing of 75cm – 90 cm by 30 cm.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Detasselling (removal of tassels) should be
done of female maize rows before the onset
of pollen shed and that only female rows will
be harvested as hybrid seeds while male rows
will be used as food crop.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Harvesting
• Sign of maturity; the seed shows a dark spot
on the side of embryo.
• It is advised not to harvest too early or too
late.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• If it is harvested too early; the crop may be
vulnerable to shrinkage of kernels, mouldiness
and rots.
• Too late harvesting expose the crop to rots
and seed sprouting in the field if showers
prevail.
• Care must be taken to avoid mixing of seed
and the male parent material.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The male parent should be thoroughly
removed from the field before starting to
harvest the seed parent.
QUIZ!!!!!!
QUIZ!!!!!
• List four (4) kinds/types of hybrid maize (4
minutes)
SEED PRODUCTION…
• STEPS OF ESTABLISHING COMMON BEAN
SEED LOT.
• Incorporate well matured FYM, compost (5
tones/Ha) and/or DAP (150 kg/Ha) at sowing
time because beans are responsive to residual
fertilizers.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Where bean seed production is dependent of
rainfall, planting dates should be adjusted to
allow harvesting to take place after the main
rains are over.
• Whereas, bean seed production depends on
irrigation, a dry season crop may be grown if
irrigation water is available.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Seed rate range between 30 – 45 kg/Ha and
dibbling method is advocated whereas the
hole is opened and single seed placed and
firmly covered.
• Spacing for common bean as seed crop should
be 50 cm row space and 10 cm intra-row
spacing to make a plant population of 200 000
plants/Ha.
SEED PRODUCTION…
SUPPLEMENTARY IRRIGATION:
• Irrigation is application of water to the soil to
ensure adequate moisture supply to meet the
seed crop needs.
• Supplementary irrigation is addition of water
to the soil at a dry spell within rainy season for
the supply moisture to meet the seed crop
needs.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The objective is to prevent moisture from
becoming a limited factor of plant growth and
development.
• Irrigate when rainfall is not sufficient and/or
poorly distributed.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• ROUGING:
• Rouging is the process of removing unwanted
plants from the seed production fields/lots, as
well as plants infected with seed born
diseases.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Undesirable plants include;
• off-type plants,
• other plant varieties,
• plant of other crop species and diseased
plants.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Off-types = plants or seeds which do not
conform to the characteristics of the variety.
• Any plants that shows unusual growth or
morphological characteristics such as different
colour, days to maturity, is regarded as an off
type and must be removed.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• A good indication to show that rouging has
been completed successfully is that, the
remaining seed crop is uniform, pure and
therefore conforms to the prescribed
characteristics of variety under consideration.
SEED PRODUCTION…
The following characters should be born in
mind for the rouging to take place:
• General plant appearance.
• Flower colour and shape.
• Plant height
• Maturity period
• Colour of stem and leaves
SEED PRODUCTION…
ASSURANCE OF WHAT TO BE ROUGED:
• To know the morphological characteristics of
the seed crop in question.
• To know the morphological characteristics of
the variety in question.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Abide on the Distinctiveness, Uniformity and
Similarity (DUS) as provided by certification
agency.
• The rule of thumb is ''DOUBTS OUT'' any plant
with doubtful description whether definite or
doubtful must be rouged out.
SEED PRODUCTION…
FIELD SEED CROP INSPECTION:
• Is inspection of seed field by seed field
inspector to check for none conforming
factors.
• The inspector will assess each factor to
confirm whether the seed crop fulfils the
certification requirements.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• For self or open pollinated two inspections are
required first before flowering and second
before harvesting.Hybrids requires a minimum
of four inspections; one before flower
initiation, second at flowering, third at grain
filling and fourth at maturity before harvesting
SEED PRODUCTION…
The purposes of pre-harvest inspection are:
• Make a final check on rouging
• Confirm if male lines in case of a hybrid seed
field have been removed.
• Authorise harvest if applicable
SEED PRODUCTION…
HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST
TECHNIQUES OF SEED CROPS:
Avoid seed mixture during harvesting and
storage
harvesting seeds earlier than the crop to
escape seed mixtures by;
• using new containers,
• Using new gunny bags with a proper labelling
SEED PRODUCTION…
Note;
• The time of harvesting is determined by
proper stage of ripeness.
• Harvesting too early or too late reduces the
crop yield ,
• by harvesting too late losses may occur
through shattering lodging or other pre
harvest losses.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Manual harvesting or stoking should start
between the end of yellowing ripeness and
full ripeness.
• When combine harvester is used and the
weather is good harvesting should start after
full ripeness or dead ripeness so that the
moisture content of the grain is 10-14
percent.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• In case of grain legume, the harvesting
process should start at full ripening or dead
ripening.
• Losses due to pod shattering can be
minimized by harvesting early in the day.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Methods of harvesting
– Hand harvesting- The product can be picked by
hand straight from the plant. This method is
common to most legumes and cereals
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Stoking
• In some crops like maize or sesame the crops
sometimes harvested by cutting the stock off
the ground and then stoked for a period of
time to allow the harvested crops to continue
drying before removal of ear or threshing
SEED PRODUCTION…
– Machine harvesting – corn pickers can be used to
remove cobs from the plants
• Combine harvesters – used for closed drilled
crops and for crops planted in rows, provided
no any selection of cobs, head or spike to be
done after harvesting.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Processing follows the same steps, but
chemicals for preservation and condition of
store are specific.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• The following are general steps (seed
processing) to be followed after harvesting a
seed crop:
SEED PRODUCTION…
• SEED DRYING – harvested seed lots must not
have too high moisture content that should be
well dried (naturally or artificially) before
performing next step.
• Natural drying is the process whereby the
threshed or unthreshed crop is dried by sun
and wind when the relative humidity is low.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Disadvantages/demerits of natural drying:
• Time consuming; the spreading of the crop on
the drying yard and collection of the crop after
drying requires a lot of time and it is tedious
since drying of some crops can last for 2 -3
days.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Too fast drying
• Since the temperature is not controlled, there
is a risk of fast drying of the seed. Fast drying
may lead to cracking of the seed and reduce
its quality.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• It pollute the seed
• Since the seeds are dried on the open area,
the seed can easily be polluted with dust and
dirt as well as insect pest infestation. This may
also cause the seed to deteriorate.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• THRESHING – is the process of separating
seeds from other part of the plant (stocks or
straw). The action may be as trail beating or
rolling of plant or by thresher (threshing
machines)
SEED PRODUCTION…
• SEED CLEANING – removal of all chaffs, parts
of the plants and dirt’s simply by winnowing
manually or by machines.
• SAMPLING – random picking of the
representative of the seed lot are combined
and submitted for purity analysis.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• SEED TREATMENT:
• Before disposal of the clean seed for storage
or use, should be treated (seed dressing)
against insect pests and pathogens.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Criteria/factors that the ideal seed treatment
method should adhered to
i. Effectiveness
• The seed treatment method to be used should
be very effective against seed-borne
pathogens that can destroy the stored seeds.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• ii. Relatively non toxic
• The method should be relatively nontoxic to
animals and plants, even if misused, therefore
if chemical method is to be used the
concentration of active ingredient should
affect only targeted pathogens.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• iii. Longevity
• The proper method should be stable for
relatively long period of time during seed
storage, before pathogen to reappear
SEED PRODUCTION…
• iv. Easy to use/apply
• Proper method should be user friend to allow
normal farmers to use without a need of
expertise.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• v. Environmental friend
• The method used should be acceptable
according to environmental safety standards
and have minimum residual effects to soil and
water bodies.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• vi. Economical
• The method used for seed treatment should
be economic to minimize production cost.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• PACKAGING- the treated seed is therefore
packed in new clean bags of good strong
materials. May be packed in different size
according to customer market demands,
normally is done in 02 kg, 05 kg, 10 kg, 20 kg
and 50 kg.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• LABELING AND SEALING – seed of all pedigree
classes must bear the official label attached to
each bag which shall show lot number, kind of
crop, name of variety, class of seed,
germination percent, purity and date of test.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• SEED STORAGE: - These are activities starts
from after harvesting to sowing, the seed is
kept under storage. The storage period can be
for a relatively short or long period of time,
and at conditions which cause minimum
reduction of viability.
SEED PRODUCTION…
Reasons for seed storage:
• May be uneconomical to multiply.
• Not always possible to estimate seed yields.
• Good seed stock are valuable may be difficult
or costly to multiply.
• Demands for seed may fluctuate
SEED PRODUCTION…
FACTORS WHICH REDUCE SEED LONGEVITY IN
THE STORE:
• Mechanical damages
• Insect pest infestation
• Diseases (pre- and post- harvest).
• Immature or under ripening of seed at harvest
• High moisture content of seed than normal
SEED PRODUCTION…
• TYPES OF STORAGE AND FACILITIES: The total
seed storage period includes the following
sequential order:
• Bulk storage – this is storage between
threshing, drying and cleaning, bins are used
as storage facilities.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Holding storage – this is storage between
different steps in processing and from
processing to packaging, bins and containers
are used.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Package seed storage – this is storage
between package and distribution, ordinary
packets of sizes 10 kg, 20 kg and 50 kg are
used.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Market place storage – storage between
distribution and sales, packets arranged in
stack.
• Farm storage – storage between purchase
and planting, farm storage is usually
temporary and is just before planting or after
harvest.
SEED PRODUCTION…
STORAGE PERIOD:
• Short term storage – from harvesting to the
next planting season, range between 01 to 09
months, condition for safe storage: 30 0C and
RH 50%, MC 12% for cereals and 08% for oil
seeds and legumes or 20 0C RH 60%, MC 13%
for cereals and 09.5% for oil seeds and
legumes.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Medium term storage – storage duration
range between 18 to 24 months, condition for
safe storage: 30 0C and RH 45%, MC 10% for
cereals and 02.5% for oil seeds and legumes
or 20 0C RH 50%, MC 12% for cereals and 08%
for oil seeds and legumes and/or 10 0C and RH
60%, MC 12% for cereals and 09% for oil seeds
and legumes.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Long term storage – storage duration range
between 03 to 10 years, condition for safe
storage: 20 0C and RH 45%, MC 02.5% to 05%
for breeders seeds, ornamentals and
vegetable seeds.
SEED PRODUCTION…
PEST MANAGEMENT DURING STORAGE:
• Rodents: Apply integrated Storage rodent
management as follows:
• Rat proofing in the store (kihenge) by raising
the floor to the above ground level at 1.0 m
and fixing of aluminum sheet of V-shape on
posts.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Repelling rats by chemical repellents or
change of environment or use of ultra sound
machine.
• Trapping of rats in small population in the
store or warehouse and/or godown.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Habitat modification by removing all
harbourage and alternative food and water.
• Use of rodenticides either acute or chronic
when the population of rats and mice
surpasses economic threshold.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Insects: Apply integrated storage insect pest
management as follows:
• Treat the seed with recommended storage
insecticides.
• Disinfect the packaging materials with
recommended disinfectant.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Disinfect the store house/ware house/godown
with recommended disinfectant.
• Arrange the well packed seeds in a pallet,
while dusting on bags with the chemical used
to treat the seed lots.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Inspect the store once a month to check for
any activities of insect pests
• Abide on rules of the store that first in the
store, should be first out of store.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Fungus: Apply integrated storage fungal
disease management as follows:
• Disinfect the seeds by using heat (thermal
treatment) or by treating the seeds with
fungicides.
SEED PRODUCTION…
• Check the seed in store regularly and use
damage thresholds for re-dressing.
• Plan and use fungicides at proper time, place,
chemical in a proper dosage
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION BY
BUDDING
Budding is grafting with a scion possessing only
one bud or eye of buds.
• It is used in citrus fruits to bud good varieties
of fruit onto vigorous and resistant stock
plants
BUDDING…
Conditions for the successful grafting;
• The scion and the root stock must be
compatible, graft compatibility means that the
scion and the rootstock are capable of joining,
that is they should be related eg. Cultivar of
the same species or species of the same
genus. Sweet orange can be grafted onto
lemon
BUDDING…
Conditions for the successful grafting…
• The grafting technique must be one that is
successful with the species being grafted.
Some species are more likely to graft by one
technique than another and therefore the
recommended grafting technique for a
particular species should be used.
BUDDING…
• The grafting operation must be performed
well and at the right time of the year, most
grafts are performed slightly before or during
a period of active growth for rapid healing.
BUDDING…
• The environment must be suitable to
encourage the graft to heal e.g. high humidity
and warm temperatures between 13 oC and
32 oC are preferred.
BUDDING…
• The scion must be of the previous growing
season and it must have dormant bud or eyes
• The scion and the root stock should have the
same size ( pencil size ) to ensure the good
contact between their vascular cambium
BUDDING…
The main two methods of budding;
• T- budding
• Inverted T- budding
BUDDING…
Procedure for inverted T- budding;
• Select young vertical shoots from high yielding
and disease free orange trees
• Removes all shoots and thorns from the stem
on the lower part of the root stock seedling
• a vertical cut about 2-3 cm long is made in the
stock
• A 2cm long horizontal cut is made at the base of
the vertical cut
BUDDING…
Procedure for inverted T- budding…
• beginning 2 cm above a bud a slicing downward
cut is made 1 cm below the bud, a horizontal
cut is made at the base to remove the bud
• The bud is inserted by pushing it upwards under
the bark flaps on the stock
• The two horizontal cuts are matched and the
bud union is tied with a water proof material
BUDDING…
Procedure for normal T- budding;
• Select young vertical shoots from high yielding
and disease free orange trees
• Removes all shoots and thorns from the stem
on the lower part of the root stock seedling
• a vertical cut about 2 cm long is made in the
stock
• A 2cm long horizontal cut is made at the top of
the vertical cut
BUDDING…
Procedure for normal T- budding…
• beginning 2 cm below a bud a slicing upward
cut is made 1 cm below the bud, a horizontal
cut is made at the top to remove the bud
• The bud is inserted by pushing it downwards
under the bark flaps on the stock
• The two horizontal cuts are matched and the
bud union is tied with a water proof material
BUDDING…
CHECKING AND ATTENDING THE BUDDING;
• Continue irrigating and weeding
• After two weeks examine the bud if it still
green, then union has taken place
• Remove the wrapping material a bit on upper
and lower parts of the bud
BUDDING…
CHECKING AND ATTENDING THE BUDDING…
• Cut the root stock 10 cm above the budding
point and remove any suckers which develop
on the root stock below or above the budding
point
• carryout pruning and other normal nursery
management practices awaiting for
transplanting

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PRODUCTION OF SEED CROPS

• Vegetative propagation materials: crops such as

• some cultural practices are • No such modification

• the aim of producing high

This means the percentage weight of a

Distinctness from all other cultivars

In assessing cultivars uniformity a number of

The capacity of the cultivars to

The number of seeds of species other than the

(a) Germination capacity; the percentage by

(between higher and lower seed vigor):

-Free from seed-borne diseases and

broken seed which contain the embryo, germinate

mature seed is preferable to immature seed.

Good quality seed should be large in size due

6CO2 + 6H2O Sunlight C6H12O6 +6CO2

Percentage Purity = Weight of seed sample – Weight of admixtures X 100%

• DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMS…

SEED SOURCE SEED GRADE

Research (Breeder) Breeder seed or Pre-basic seed

Foundation seed farms Foundation/basic seeds

Contract growers (Seed farms/companies) Registered/Certified One (I)

Contract growers (Seed farms/companies) Registered/Certified Two (II)

Processing through seed companies All Certified seeds above

Production planning helps to coordinate the

Production planning helps to give a

• Production planning makes optimum

• this is one of the most critical steps for

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