BUSINESS RESEARCH

METHODS
UNIT 5
BY – Dr. Swati Srivastava
Associate Professor,
MBA Department,
Dronacharya Group of Institutions,
Greater Noida
Data Analysis: Editing Coding Tabular Representation of Data

• Data analysis involves several steps, including editing, coding, and

tabular representation of data. Here’s a breakdown of each step:

• Editing: Editing involves reviewing and cleaning the collected data to

ensure that it is accurate, complete, and consistent. During editing,
data errors such as missing values, outliers, and inconsistencies are
identified and corrected. The goal of editing is to ensure that the data
is of high quality and suitable for analysis.
• Coding: Coding involves assigning numerical or categorical codes to data values to
facilitate data analysis. For example, in a survey where respondents are asked to
rate their level of satisfaction on a scale of 1 to 5, the responses can be coded as 1
= Very Dissatisfied, 2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Satisfied, and 5 = Very Satisfied.
Coding helps to transform qualitative data into quantitative data, which is easier to
analyze.

• Tabular representation: Tabular representation involves presenting the data in a

structured table format. This format enables easy comparison and analysis of data
across different variables. Tables typically have rows and columns, with rows
representing the different observations or cases, and columns representing the
variables being measured. Data can be summarized using measures such as means,
medians, and percentages.
• When preparing a table for data analysis, it’s important to follow certain
conventions. For example, the table should have a clear title that summarizes
the data being presented. The table should also have headings for rows and
columns, and the data should be presented in a logical and easy-to-
understand format. Additionally, it’s important to label the units of
measurement used in the table.

• In summary, editing, coding, and tabular representation are important steps

in data analysis. Editing helps to ensure data quality, coding helps to
transform qualitative data into quantitative data, and tabular representation
facilitates comparison and analysis of data. Following best practices in these
steps is essential for accurate and meaningful data analysis.
Frequency Tables : Construct A Frequency Distribution

• A frequency distribution is a table that summarizes data by showing

the number of times a particular value or range of values appears in a
dataset. To construct a frequency distribution, you should follow
these steps:

• Choose the variable of interest: The first step is to select the variable
you want to summarize. This could be a categorical variable, such as
gender or educational level, or a numerical variable, such as age or
income.
• Determine the range and intervals: If the variable is numerical, you need
to determine the range of values and the size of the intervals. For
example, if you are analyzing the age of a group of people, you may
choose intervals of 5 years, starting from 0 to 4, 5 to 9, 10 to 14, and so
on. If the variable is categorical, you can simply list the categories.

• Count the number of observations: For each interval or category, count

the number of times the variable falls within that range. This is the
frequency. For example, if you are analyzing the age of a group of people
and you have an interval of 10 to 14, you would count the number of
people in the group who are between 10 and 14 years old.
• Record the results in a table: Finally, record the results in a table. The
table should have two columns: one for the intervals or categories
and one for the frequencies.
Graphical Representation of Data: Appropriate Usages of Bar
Charts, Pie Charts, Histogram

• Bar charts, pie charts, and histograms are common types of charts used to
represent data graphically. Here are their appropriate usages:
• Bar Charts:

• Bar charts are appropriate for comparing categorical data. This type of chart
is useful when you want to compare the magnitude of different categories.
For example, a bar chart can be used to compare sales figures for different
products, or the number of students enrolled in different courses. The
height of each bar represents the value of the category being represented.
• Pie Charts:

• Pie charts are appropriate when you want to show the proportions or
percentages of different categories in a whole. This type of chart is useful for
showing how a total amount is divided into different categories. For
example, a pie chart can be used to show the percentage of students in a
school who are enrolled in different majors.

• However, pie charts are often less effective than bar charts for comparing
values, especially when the differences in value are small or the number of
categories is large.
• Histogram:

• Histograms are appropriate for showing the distribution of numerical data.

This type of chart is useful for showing how a set of data is distributed
across a range of values. For example, a histogram can be used to show the
distribution of ages of customers in a store or the distribution of scores on a
test.

• Histograms can be more effective than bar charts when dealing with
numerical data, as they can provide information on the range of values and
the frequency of occurrence.
Hypothesis: Framing Null Hypothesis and Alternative
Hypothesis

• In statistics, a hypothesis is a statement or assumption about a

population or a process that can be tested through data analysis. There
are two types of hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis.

• The null hypothesis is a statement that suggests there is no significant

difference or relationship between two or more variables or populations.
It is often denoted as H0. The null hypothesis assumes that any observed
difference or relationship is due to chance or random variation.
• For example, if we want to test the hypothesis that a new drug is
effective in treating a disease, the null hypothesis would be that the
drug has no significant effect on the disease.

• The alternative hypothesis, denoted as Ha, is a statement that suggests

there is a significant difference or relationship between two or more
variables or populations. It is the opposite of the null hypothesis.

• Using the same example, the alternative hypothesis would be that the
drug is effective in treating the disease.
• To summarize, the null hypothesis suggests that there is no significant
difference or relationship between the variables or populations being
studied, while the alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a
significant difference or relationship.

• When conducting a statistical test, we assume the null hypothesis to

be true and use data to either reject or fail to reject it. If the data
provides strong evidence against the null hypothesis, we reject it and
accept the alternative hypothesis. If the data does not provide
enough evidence against the null hypothesis, we fail to reject it.
 Concept of Hypothesis Testing: Logic and
Importance

• Hypothesis testing is a statistical procedure used to test whether a statement or

assumption about a population or a process is likely to be true or false based on
sample data. It is an important tool in scientific research and decision-making, as
it allows us to draw conclusions and make predictions based on evidence.

• The logic behind hypothesis testing is to start with an assumption or statement

about a population or a process, called the null hypothesis, and test it against an
alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is assumed to be true until proven
otherwise, and the alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• We then collect sample data and use statistical methods to calculate a
test statistic, which is a measure of how far the sample data deviates
from what we would expect if the null hypothesis were true. We
compare the test statistic to a critical value or a p-value, which tells us
how likely it is to observe the test statistic if the null hypothesis were
true.
F-TEST, Z-TEST
• F-test and Z-test are two statistical tests used in hypothesis testing.

• F-test:

• An F-test is a statistical test used to compare the variances of two

populations. It can be used to determine if two samples have the same
variance or if two populations have the same variance. The F-test calculates
the ratio of the variances of the two samples and compares it to the F-
distribution. If the calculated F-value is greater than the critical F-value,
then we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the variances are not
equal.
• Z-test:

• A Z-test is a statistical test used to determine whether two sample means are different
when the population standard deviation is known. It is used when the sample size is
large enough to assume a normal distribution. The Z-test calculates the difference
between the two sample means in terms of standard deviations and compares it to
the standard normal distribution. If the calculated Z-value is greater than the critical Z-
value, then we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the means are different.

• In summary, F-test is used to compare the variances of two populations, while Z-test is
used to compare the means of two populations with known standard deviation.
Cross Tabulation

• Cross-tabulation, also known as contingency table analysis, is a statistical

method used to analyze and display the relationship between two or more
categorical variables. It is a useful tool for exploring the relationships between
different categories of data and can be used to identify patterns, trends, and
associations.

• In cross-tabulation, the data is organized into a table with rows representing one
variable and columns representing another variable. The cells of the table
contain the frequency or count of observations that fall into each combination of
categories. This allows us to see how the categories of one variable are related
to the categories of another variable.
• For example, suppose we have a dataset containing information about the gender and
education level of a group of people. We can use cross-tabulation to examine the relationship
between these two variables.

• We might create a table with “Gender” as the row variable and “Education Level” as the
column variable. The cells of the table would contain the frequency of people who fall into
each combination of gender and education level (e.g., the number of males with a high school
education, the number of females with a college degree, etc.).

• By examining this table, we can identify patterns and relationships between gender and
education level. For example, we might notice that there are more females with college
degrees than males, or that males are more likely to have only a high school education than
females. We can also calculate statistics such as chi-square tests or odds ratios to further
investigate the relationship between these variables.
Chi-Squared Test
• The chi-squared test is a statistical method used to determine whether there is a significant
association between two categorical variables. It compares the observed frequencies in a
contingency table (also known as a cross-tabulation table) with the expected frequencies under
a null hypothesis of no association between the variables.

• The chi-squared test involves the following steps:

• Formulate the null hypothesis: The null hypothesis states that there is no association between
the two categorical variables. The alternative hypothesis is that there is a significant association.

• Create a contingency table: The contingency table shows the frequency distribution of the two
categorical variables. The rows represent one variable, and the columns represent the other
variable
Analysis of Variance: One-Way and Two-Way Classification

• Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical method used to determine

whether there is a significant difference between the means of three or more
groups. There are two types of ANOVA: one-way and two-way classification.

• One-way ANOVA:

• One-way ANOVA is used when is being tested. The factor can have two or
more levels, and the dependent variable is continuous. One-way ANOVA
compares the means of the different groups and determines whether the
differences are statistically significant.
The steps for conducting a one-way ANOVA are:

• Formulate the null hypothesis: The null hypothesis states that there is
no significant difference between the means of the groups.

• Collect the data: Collect data for the dependent variable for each level
of the factor.

• Calculate the within-group variation: Calculate the sum of squares for

the within-group variation, which represents the variability of the scores
within each group.
• Calculate the between-group variation: Calculate the sum of squares for the between-
group variation, which represents the variability of the means between the groups.

• Calculate the F-statistic: Divide the between-group variation by the within-group

variation to get the F-statistic.

• Determine the p-value: Determine the p-value from the F-distribution table or using
statistical software.

• Interpret the results: If the p-value is less than the significance level (usually 0.05), then
reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a significant difference between
the means of the groups.
Two-way ANOVA:

• Two-way ANOVA is used when there are two factors (or independent variables) that are
being tested simultaneously. The factors can have two or more levels, and the
dependent variable is continuous. Two-way ANOVA compares the means of the different
groups and determines whether the differences are statistically significant.

• The steps for conducting a two-way ANOVA are similar to those of a one-way ANOVA,
except that the variation is calculated separately for each factor and for the interaction
between the factors.
• In summary, ANOVA is a statistical method used to test the significance of the
differences between the means of three or more groups. One-way ANOVA is used when
there is only one factor being tested, while two-way ANOVA is used when there are two
factors being tested simultaneously.
Mechanism of Report Writing

• Report writing is a process that involves several stages, each of which contributes to
producing a clear, well-organized, and effective report. The following are the basic steps
involved in the mechanism of report writing:

• Defining the purpose and scope of the report: This involves identifying the report’s objectives,
target audience, and the specific information required to achieve these objectives. This stage
helps to clarify the scope of the report and ensure that it meets the intended purpose.

• Gathering and organizing the data: This involves collecting and analyzing the necessary data,
and organizing it into a structured format that facilitates analysis and interpretation. The data
can be collected from various sources, including interviews, surveys, research papers, and
online resources.
• Structuring the report: This involves organizing the data into a logical and
meaningful structure. The report should have a clear introduction, main body,
and conclusion. The introduction should provide an overview of the report’s
purpose, scope, and methodology, while the main body should present the
analysis and findings. The conclusion should summarize the report’s key
findings and recommendations.

• Writing the report: This involves writing the report in clear and concise
language. The report should be easy to read and understand, with
appropriate use of headings, subheadings, and bullet points. The language
used should be appropriate for the target audience, and the report should be
free of grammatical errors and types.
• Reviewing and revising the report: This involves reviewing the report for accuracy,
clarity, and effectiveness. The report should be revised as necessary to improve its
quality and ensure that it meets the intended purpose.

• Presenting the report: This involves presenting the report to the intended audience in
a manner that facilitates understanding and acceptance. The report can be presented
in various formats, including written reports, oral presentations, and visual aids.

• In summary, the mechanism of report writing involves defining the purpose and scope
of the report, gathering and organizing the data, structuring the report, writing the
report, reviewing and revising the report, and presenting the report to the intended
audience. Each of these stages is important in producing a clear, well-organized, and
effective report.
 Report preparations
• Preparing a report can involve several steps, depending on the type of report and
the purpose for which it is being written. However, there are some general steps that
can be followed to prepare a report:

• Define the purpose and scope of the report: The first step in preparing a report is to
define its purpose and scope. This involves identifying the objectives of the report,
the target audience, and the specific information required to achieve the objectives.

• Collect and analyze data: Once the purpose and scope of the report have been
defined, the next step is to collect and analyze the data. This can involve conducting
research, analyzing existing data, or gathering information from various sources.
• Organize the data: After collecting and analyzing the data, the next step is to
organize it into a structured format that facilitates analysis and interpretation. This
can involve creating tables, charts, and graphs to visually represent the data.

• Write the report: Once the data has been organized, the next step is to write the
report. This involves creating an outline, writing the introduction, main body, and
conclusion, and revising the report as necessary.

• Review and revise the report: After writing the report, the next step is to review
and revise it to ensure that it is accurate, clear, and effective. This can involve
editing the report for grammar and punctuation, checking for consistency, and
ensuring that the report meets the intended purpose.
• Present the report: The final step in preparing a report is to present it
to the intended audience. This can involve creating visual aids,
delivering an oral presentation, or providing a written report.

• In summary, preparing a report involves defining the purpose and

scope of the report, collecting and analyzing data, organizing the data,
writing the report, reviewing and revising the report, and presenting
the report to the intended audience. Each of these steps is important
in producing a clear, well-organized, and effective report.
Types of Report

• There are various types of reports that can be prepared, depending on the purpose,
scope, and audience. Some common types of reports are:

• Informational reports: These reports provide information about a particular topic,

event, or situation. They are usually objective and factual, and their purpose is to
provide information to the reader.

• Analytical reports: These reports analyze a particular problem or situation and

provide recommendations or solutions. They may include a summary of the
problem, an analysis of the causes and effects, and a set of recommendations for
action.
• Progress reports: These reports provide updates on the progress of a project or
program. They may include information on achievements, challenges, and
future plans.

• Feasibility reports: These reports assess the feasibility of a particular project or

idea. They may include information on the costs, benefits, and risks associated
with the project, as well as an analysis of the feasibility of the project

• Technical reports: These reports provide detailed technical information on a

particular topic, such as a scientific or engineering research project. They may
include detailed data, calculations, and technical drawings.
• Financial reports: These reports provide information on the financial
performance of an organization, such as income statements, balance sheets, and
cash flow statements.

• Incident reports: These reports provide information on incidents or accidents

that have occurred, including the causes, effects, and actions taken to prevent
similar incidents in the future.

• In summary, the type of report that is prepared depends on the purpose, scope,
and audience. Some common types of reports include informational reports,
analytical reports, progress reports, feasibility reports, technical reports, financial
reports, and incident reports.
Report Structure: Preliminaries
Section ,Main Report
• Report Structure:

• Reports typically have a standard structure that includes several

sections. The two main sections of a report are the preliminaries and the
main report.

• Preliminaries section:

• This section includes the title page, table of contents, list of figures or
tables (if any), and executive summary.
• Title page: The title page includes the title of the report, the author’s name, the date
of publication, and any other relevant information.

• Table of contents: The table of contents lists the sections and sub-sections of the
report, along with the page numbers where they can be found.

• List of figures or tables: If the report includes any figures or tables, they should be
listed in a separate section with their respective page numbers.

• Executive summary: The executive summary provides a brief overview of the report,
including its purpose, key findings, and recommendations. It is typically written after
the main report has been completed.
Main Report:
• The main report includes the following sections:

• Introduction: The introduction provides background information on the topic,

explains the purpose of the report, and outlines the scope of the report.

• Literature review: If applicable, this section provides a review of relevant literature

on the topic, including previous research and other sources of information.

• Methods: This section explains the methods used to collect and analyze data for
the report, including any relevant information on the sample population, data
collection tools, and data analysis methods.
• Results: The results section presents the findings of the report, usually with the help
of charts, graphs, or other visual aids.

• Discussion: The discussion section provides an interpretation of the results, including

any insights gained from the findings and their implications for the topic at hand.

• Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the report and reiterates
its key messages.

• Recommendations: This section provides specific recommendations for action based

on the findings of the report.
• References: The references section lists all the sources cited in the report,
following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA, or Chicago.
• Appendices: If applicable, appendices can be included at the end of the
report to provide additional information or data that supports the main
findings.

• In summary, the structure of a report typically includes two main sections: the
preliminaries section, which includes the title page, table of contents, list of
figures or tables (if applicable), and executive summary, and the main report
section, which includes the introduction, literature review, methods, results,
discussion, conclusion, recommendations, references, and appendices.
Interpretation of Results Suggestions and
Recommendations
• After interpreting the results of a research study, experiment, or analysis, it is common to
provide suggestions and recommendations based on the findings. Here are some guidelines
for providing suggestions and recommendations:

• Be specific: Provide clear and specific recommendations that are based on the findings of the
study. Avoid vague or general recommendations that are not directly related to the results.

• Prioritize recommendations: If there are multiple recommendations, prioritize them in order

of importance. This can help the reader understand which recommendations are the most
critical.

• Justify recommendations: Provide a rationale for each recommendation. Explain why the
recommendation is important, how it will help address the problem or issue, and how it is
supported by the data.
• Consider feasibility: When making recommendations, consider the feasibility of implementing them.
Consider factors such as cost, resources, and potential barriers.

• Address limitations: Acknowledge any limitations of the study and how they may impact the
recommendations. This can help the reader understand the scope and generalizability of the
recommendations.

• Consider the audience: Tailor the language and tone of the recommendations to the intended
audience. Use language that is appropriate for the audience, and consider any cultural or contextual
factors that may impact the recommendations.

• In summary, when providing suggestions and recommendations based on the results of a research
study, experiment, or analysis, it is important to be specific, prioritize recommendations, justify
recommendations, consider feasibility, address limitations, and consider the audience.
THANK YOU