RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING is the application of scientific principles to
the drainage problems which arise during the developpement and production of
oil and gas reservoirs so as to obtain a high economic recovery.
Oil and gas accumulations occur in underground traps formed by structural
and/or stratigraphic features. Usually they occur in porous and permeable beds,
which are mainly sandstones, limestones and dolomites.
A reservoir is an underground geologic formation that contains hydrocarbons.
Under initial reservoir conditions, the hydrocarbons fluids are either in a single-
phase or a two-phase state.
 INTRODUCTION
Although the hydrocarbons in place are fixed quantities, which are reffered to
as ressource, the reserves which are estimated volumes of crude oil, condensate,
natural gas and natural gas liquids anticipated to be commercially recoverable
depend on the method by which the reservoir is produced.
The hydrocarbons in the reservoir can be produced either by primary,
secondary or tertiary recovery processes.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS
Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or gas reservoirs.
These broad classifications can be further subdivided depending on:
- The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon mixture
- Initial reservoir pressure and temperature
- Pressure and temperature of the surface production
The determination of the conditions in which the different hydrocarbon phases
exist are expressed in phase diagrams.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Phase diagrams differ with the
hydrocarbon systems and are
essentially used to:
- Classify reservoirs
- Classify the naturally occuring
hydrocarbons systems
- Describe the phase behaviour of
the reservoir fluid.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS - DEFINITIONS
Cricondentherm: Maximum
temperature above which liquid cannot
form, regardless of pressure.
Cricondenbar: Maximum pressure
above which no gas can be formed
regardless of the temperature.
Critical Point: This is the pressure and
temperature at which all the properties
of the liquid and gas phases are equal.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS - DEFINITIONS
Phase envelope(two phase region):
This is the region enclosed by the
bubble-point curve and the dew-point
curve where gas and liquid coexist in
equilibrium.
Quality lines: These are the dashed
lines whithin the phase diagram, they
converge at the critical point.
Bubble-point curve: This is the line
separating the liquid-phase region
from the two-phase region.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Consider a reservoir initially at 300° F
and 3700 psia(Point A). Since this
point lies outside the two-phase region,
it is initially in one-phase state(gas
phase) located at point A. Since the
fluid remaining in the reservoir during
production remains at 300°F, it is clair
that it will remain in the single phase
as pressure declines along path AA1.
The composition of the produced well
fluid will not change as the reservoir is
depleted
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Of course, this is true for any
accumulation where the reservoir
temperature excceds the
cricondentherm or maximum two-
phase temperature(250°F for this
example). Although the fluid left in the
reservoir remains in one phase, the
fluid produced through the wellbore
may enter the two-phase region owing
to temperature decline, as shown by
line AA2.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Homework: Justify the production of
condensate liquid at the surface from a
gas reservoir (See line AA2)
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Next consider a reservoir initially at
180° F and 3300 psia(Point B). Here
the fluid is initially in a one-phase
state, commonly called gas, where the
reservoir tmperature exceeds the
critical temperature. As pressure
declines because of production, the
composition of the produced fluid will
be the same and will remain constant
until the dew-point pressure is reached
at 2700 psia.(Point B1)
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Below this pressure, a liquid
condenses out of the reservoir fluid as
a fog or dew and this type of reservoir
is commonly called a dew-point
reservoir. This condensation leaves the
gas-phase with a lower liquid content.
However, because the condensed
liquid adheres to the walls of the pores,
it is immobile. This explains why the
gas produced at the surface has a lower
liquid content.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
This implies that the producing gas-oil
ratio will rise. This process of
retrograde condensation continues
until point B2 is reached.
Homework: Explain the term
retrograde condensation used above.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Let’s now assume that this
accumulation occured at 2900 psia and
75°F(Point C). The reservoir would be
in a one-phase state, now called liquid
because the temperature is below the
critical temperature. This type of
accumulation is called a bubble-point
reservoir. As pressure declines, the
bubble point is reached at 2550
psia(Point C1)
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Below this point, bubbles, or a free-gas
phase will appear. Eventually, the free
gas will begin to flow to the wellbore,
and in ever increasing quantities. Of
course this would lead to oil flowing in
ever decreasing quantities, and at
depletion, much unrecovered oil will
be left in the reservoir. This reservoir
can also be called: Depletion, Disolved
gas, solution gas, expansion and
internal gas drive.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – PT DIAGRAMS
Finally, if this same hydrocarbon
mixture occured at 2000 psia and
150°F(Point D), it would be a two-
phase reservoir, consiting of a liquid or
oil zone overlain by a gas zone or a gas
cap. In conclusion, it can be seen that
hydrocarbon reservoirs are initially
either in a single-phase state(A, B, C)
or a two-phase state(D) depending on
their temperatures and pressures.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS
To Summarize, reservoirs are generally classified on the basis of the location of the
point representing the initial reservoir pressure Pi and temperature T with respect to the
pressure-temperature diagram of the reservoir fluid. Accordingly, reservoirs can be
classified into two basic types:
• Oil Reservoirs (The reservoir temperature is less than the critical temperature of the
reservoir fluid.
• Gas Reservoirs ( The reservoir temperature is greater than the critical temperature of
the hydrocarbon fluid)
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS – OIL RESERVOIRS
Depending on the initial reservoir pressure pi, oil reservoirs can be classified into the
following categories:
• Undersaturated oil reservoirs (The initial reservoir pressure is greater than the
bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid
• Saturated Oil reservoirs(The initial reservoir pressure is equal to the buble point
pressure of the reservoir fluid)
• Gas-cap reservoirs(The initial reservoir pressure is bellow the bubble-point pressure
of the reservoir fluid. Here the gas or vapour phase is underlain by an oil phase.
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES – POROSITY
Porosity can be defined as a measure of the void spaces within the rock and is
calculated as the ration of the void space, or pore volume to the total bulk volume of
the rock.
The symbol of porosity is Ø.
It is expressed either as a fraction or in percent.
Porosity is usually reported either as absolute or effective porosity depending on the
type of measurement used.
Effective porosity is the amount of void space that contributes to the flow of fluids.
REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES – ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY
Compressibility is the change in volume that a substance undergoesduring a change in
pressure while the temperatureisheld constant.
It isexpressed in reciprocals of pressure units(psi-1).
 REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES – FLUID SATURATIONS
The ratio of the pore volume occupied by a particular fluid is the saturation of that
fluid.
The symbol for oil saturation is So.
It is usually expressed as a fraction or percentage but it is used as a fraction in
equations.
Saturation can be measured directly or indirectly.
The direct approach involves either the extraction of the resvoir fluid from the rock
sample.
The indirect approach relies on the measurement of some other property such as the
capillary pressure, and the derivation of the mathematical relationship between the
measured property and saturation.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – IDEAL GAS LAW
The relationshipsthatdescribe the behaviour of gases are calledequations of state.
The simplestequation of state iscalled the idealgaslaw and isgiven by:

p=absolute pressure, psia

V=volume, ft3
T=absolutetemperature,°R
N=number of moles of gas, lb-mole
R = the universalgas constant, which for the unitsabove has a value of 10.730 psia/lb-
mole°R
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS DENSITY
The number of moles is the weight of the gasdivided by the molecularweight

Insertingthatinto the idealgaslawequationgives us

Sincedensityisdefined as the mass per volume, gasdensitycanbeobtained as

Whereisexpressed in lb/ft3
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS DENSITY
Exercice: Three pounds of n-butane are placed in a vesselat 120°F and 60 psia.
Calculate the volume of the gasassuming an idealgasbehaviour. The molecularweight
of n-butane is 58,123
Ans: V= 5,35 ft3

Exercice: using the data of the previous exercice, calculate the density of n-butane.
Ans = 0,56 lb/ft3
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific Gravityisdefined as the ratio of the density of a gasat a giventemperature and
pressure to tehdensity of air at the sametemperature and pressure.
The temperatureisusually 60°F and the pressure 14,7 psia.
Fromwhatwederivedabove, wecansaythat
This impliesthat the specificgravity of the gasis
NB: At Standard conditions, one mole of gasoccupies a volume of 379.4 SCF
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific Volume isdefined as the volume occupied by a unit mass of the gas.
It isgiven as
Where v is the specific volume in ft3/lb
Is the gasdensity in lb/ft3
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – SPECIFIC VOLUME
Exercice: A gas well is producing gas with a specific gravity of 0,65 at a rate of 1.1
MMSCF/day. The average reservoir pressure and temperature are 1500 psi and 150°F.
Calculate:
a. The apparent molecular weight of the gas Ans: 18.82 lb/mole
b. The gas density at reservoir conditions Ans: 4,31 lb/ft3
c. The flow rate in lb/day Ans: 54 559 lb/day
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – SPECIFIC VOLUME
Exercice: A gas well is producing a natural gas with the following composition:
Assuming an ideal gas behaviour, calculate: Component Fraction Yi
a. The apparent molecular weight(Use MS Excel) CO2 0.05
a. Ans: 18.42 C1 0.90
b. The specific gravity C2 0.03
a. Ans: 0.636 C3 0.02

c. The gas density at 2000 psia and 150°F

a. Ans: 5.628 lb/ft3
d. The specific volume at 2000 psia and 150°F
a. Ans: 0.178 ft3/lb
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
As Pressure and temperatureincrease, real gasesdeviatefrom the conditions specified
by the idealgaslaw. The more exact relationship must takeintoaccount the
gascompressibility factor or gasdeviation factor alsocalled the z-factor.

The new equationtakes the form of pV=znRT

Where the gascompressibility factor z is a dimensionlessquantity and isdefined as the
ratio of the actual volume of n moles of gas to the ideal volume of the samenumber of
moles of gas and at the same T and p.
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
Determination of the z-factor requires the determination of:
• The pseudo-reduced pressure
• The pseudo-reducedtemperature
Where p is the system pressure, psia
Ppris the dimensionless pseudo-reduced pressure
T is the system temperature
Tpris the dimensionless pseudo-reducedtemperature
Ppc, Tpc are the pseudo-critical pressure and temperaturedefined by the
followingrelationships
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
Example: A gas reservoir has the following gas composition: the initial reservoir
pressure and temperature are 3000 psia and 180°F, respectively.
Calculate the gas compressibility factor under initial reservoir conditions.
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
Component yi Tci,°R Yi,Tci Pci Yi,Pci
CO2 0,02 547,91 10,96 1071 21,42
N2 0,01 227,49 2,27 493,1 4,93
C1 0,85 343,33 291,83 666,4 566,44
C2 0,04 549,92 22,00 706,5 28,26
C3 0,03 666,06 19,98 616,4 18,49
i-C4 0,03 734,46 22,03 527,9 15,84
n-C4 0,02 765,62 15,31 550,6 11,01
Tpc= 384,39 Ppc= 666,39
Critical values can be obtained from table on the previous slide
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
Fromtheseequations, Ppc = 666,18 and Tpc = 383.38
• The pseudo-reduced pressure
Can becalculated as 4.5
• The pseudo-reducedtemperature
Can becalculated as 1.67
Withthesetwo values ready, wecanfind the z-factor from the standing and katz z-factor
chart as z=0,85
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
Example: A gas reservoir has the following gas composition: the initial reservoir
pressure and temperature are 3000 psia and 180°F, respectively.
Calculate the density of the gas phase under initial reservoir conditions. Compare the
results with that of ideal gas behaviour.
Hints
• Calculate the apparent molecular weight
• Determine Ppc and Tpc
• Determine Ppr and Tpr
• Determine z(0.85)
• Calculate ρg taking into account z(10.4lb/ft3)
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
When the composition of the natural gas is not availlable, the pseudo-critical
properties can be predicted solely from the specific gravity of the gas.
For Natural Gas systems

For Gas Condensate systems

REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
The pseudo-critical
properties can also be
obtained from the graphical
correlation
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
Example: A gas reservoir has an initial reservoir pressure and temperature of 3000 psia
and 180°F, respectively. The molecular weight is 20.23. Calculate its density taking
into account the z-factor using the equations below.
Tpc= 389.1°R
Ppc=669.2 psia
Z=0.824

Ans: ρg=10.72lb/ft3
 TEST
Question 1: 8 mins
- Using the two phase diagram, explain the following terms
- Cricondenbar
- Cricondentherm
- Undersaturated oil reservoir
- Critical point
- Retrogade gas condensate reservoir
- Bubble point
- Dew point
- Quality lines
 TEST
Question 2: 10 mins
Calculate the specific gravity and pseudocritical properties of the following gas
mixture.
Component yi Tci,°R Yi,Tci Pci Yi,Pci
CO2 0,02 547,91 10,96 1071 21,42
N2 0,06 227,49 13,65 493,1 29,59
C1 0,8 343,33 274,66 666,4 533,12
C2 0,04 549,92 22,00 706,5 28,26
C3 0,03 666,06 19,98 616,4 18,49
i-C4 0,03 734,46 22,03 527,9 15,84
n-C4 0,02 765,62 15,31 550,6 11,01
1 Tpc= 378,60 Ppc= 657,73
 TEST
Question 3: 10 mins
- Define, Oil formation volume factor, Viscosity, compressibility, API
- Calculate the specificgravityand the API gravityof a crudeoil system with a
measureddensity of 58lb/ft3 at standard conditions.
- Show that the Gas Formation Volume factor is
REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
Example: Given the data in the table below for the Bell Field gas, find the gas
compressibility factor.

Ans: z= 0.91
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR

The gas formation volume factor isused to relate the volume of gasmeasuredatreservoir
conditions, to the volume of gasmeasuredat standard conditions(60°F and 14.7 psia).

WhereBgis the gas formation volume factor, Vris the volume of gas in the reservoir
and Vscis the volume of gasat standard conditions.
Applying the real gasequation of state, weget:

) whichgives
WhereZsc =1
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR

Since standard conditions are specified as T=60°F and p=14.7 psia.

WhereBgis the gas formation volume factor in ft3/scf, z is the gascompressibility factor
and T the temperature in °R.
Homework: Express Bg in terms of the gasdensityρg.
The reciprocal of the gas formation volume factor iscalled the gas expansion factor and
isdesignatedEg, where
in scf/ft3
Express the gas expansion factor in terms of the gasdensity
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
Exercice: A gas well is producing at a rate of 15 000ft3/day from a gas reservoir at an
vaerage pressure of 2 000 psia and a temperature of 120°F. The specific gravity is 0.72,
Calculate the gas flow rate in scf/day
Hints:
• Calculate pseudo-critical and pseudo-reduced properties
• Determine the z-factor from the standing and katz chart Ans: z= 0.78
• Calculate the gas formation volume factor(0.00661 ft3/scf) and use it to find the
required flowrate or
• Calculate the gas expansion factor(151.15scf/ft3) and use it to find the required
flowrate Ans: Q=2.267 MMscf/day
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS COMPRESSIBILITY
By definition, the isothermal gas compressibility is the change in volume for a unit
change in pressure. In equation form, it is given as:

Where cg is the isothermal gas compressibility,

After substitutions and differentiation, it becomes

Show that for an ideal gas Cg=1/p

 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS COMPRESSIBILITY
Exercice: Assuming ideal gas behaviour, calculate the isothermal gas compressibility
of a gas at 2 000 psia and 140°F.

Ans cg=500x10-6 psi-1

 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow.
Viscosity is not commonly measures in the laboratory because it can be estimated
precisely from empirical correlations.
It is generaly expressed in terms of poises, centipoise or micropoise.

Methods of calculating viscosities of Natural Gases

• Carr-Kobayashi-Burrows Correlation method
• Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin Method
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS VISCOSITY
The Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin Method

Where

Enter this formula in Microsoft Excel and use it to solve the problem on the next page.
 REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES – GAS VISCOSITY
The Lee-Gonzalez-Eakin Method
A gas well is producing at a rate of 15 000 ft3/day from a gas reservoir at an average
pressure of 2000 psia and a temperature of 120°F. The specific gravity of the gas is
0.72. Calculate the viscosity of the gas using the Lee-Gonzales-Eakin method on
Microsoft Excel
Step1: Calculate the gas density Ans:8,31lb/ft3
Step2: Solve for the parameters K, X and Y Ans: K=119.72;
X=5.35 ;Y=1.33
Step3: Calculate μg=0.0173cp
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – CRUDE OIL GRAVITY
The crude oil density(masse volumique) is defined as a mass of a unit volume of the
crude at a specified pressure and temperature.
The specific gravity(Densité) of a crude oil is defined as the ratio of the density of the
oil to that of water. Both densities are measured at 60°F.

The density of water is approximately 62.4 lb/ft3

 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – API GRAVITY
The API gravity is the prefered gravity scale for crude oil in the petroleum industry.

The API gravities of crude oils usually range from 47° API for lighter crudes to 10°
API for the heavier asphaltic crude oils.
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – API GRAVITY
Example: Calculate the specific gravity and the API gravity of a crude oil system with
a measured density of 53lb/ft3 at standard conditions.

Ans: Specific gravity = 0.849

API Gravity = 35.2° API
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTION GAS

The specific gravity of the solution gas is calculated as the weighted average of
specific gravities of the separated gas from each separator.
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLUTION GAS

Example
Separator tests were conducted on a crude oil sample. Results of the test are given in
the table below: Calculate the specific gravity of the separated gas.

Ans: γg = 0.819
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
The gas solubility Rs is the number of standard cubic feet of gas that will disolve in
one stock tank barrel of crude oil at a certain pressure and temperature.
Generally, sollubility increases with pressure until the saturation pressure is reached.
At the saturation pressure which is called the Buble Point Pressure, all the availlable
gas is dissolved in the oil and the gas solubility reaches its maximum value.
A crude oil is said to be saturated with gas at any pressure and temperature if on a
slight reduction in pressure some gas is released from solution.
Conversely, if no gas is released from solution, the crude oil is said to be
undersaturated. An undersaturated oil reservoir has no gas cap.
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
The figure above shows the variation of solution gas with pressure for a reservoir fluid
at 160°F. At the initial reservoir pressure of 3500 psia, there is 567 SCF/STP of
solution gas. We can see that no gas is evolved from solution as the pressure drops
from 3500 psia to 2500 psia because the solubility remains constant. In this region, we
can say that the oil is undersaturated. Consequently, there is no gas cap in the reservoir.
What does the 2 500 psia pressure represents?
At this pressure, the first bubble of gas appears.
At 1200 psia, the solution gas is 337 SCF/STB, and the average solubility between
2500 psia and 1200 psia is 0.177 SCF/STB/psi
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
Empirically, gas solubility can be estimated from empirical correlations such as:
- Standing’s Correlation
- The Vasquez-Beggs Correlation
- Glaso’s Correlation
- Marhoun’s Correlation
- The Petrosky-Farshad Correlation
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
Standing’s Correlation
Standing’s equation is valid for
applications at and below the bubble
point pressure of the crude oil.
Can we do that on Microsoft Excel?
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
Standing’s Correlation
Example: The following experimental PVT date on six diffrent crude oil systems are
availlable. Results are based on two-stage surface separation.

Using Standing’s Correlation, estimate the gas solubility at the bubble point pressure
and compare with the experimental value in terms of the Absolute Average
Error(AAE)
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
Standing’s Correlation
Example:
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
Standing’s Correlation
Solution:

Oil# X 10x Rs Calc Rs Given % Error

1 0,36125 2,297 831,85 751 11%
2 0,30855 2,034 810,97 768 6%
3 0,3709 2,349 767,29 693 11%
4 0,29058 1,952 908,73 968 -6%
5 0,35412 2,260 1005,88 943 7%
6 0,17745 1,504 993,83 807 23%
AAE= 8%
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – GAS SOLUBILITY
The Vasquez-Beggs Correlation
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
The bubble point of a hydrocarbon system is the highest temperature at which the first
bubble of gas is liberated from the oil. The bubble point can be measured
experimentally or calculated.
Methods for estimating the bubble poit pressure include.
Standing Method
Vasquez and Beggs Method
Glaso Method
Marhoun method
Petrosky and Farshad Method
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
Standing’s Correlation
Standing proposed a correlation for estimating the bubble point pressure whose input
parametersinclude: The GasSolubilityRs, The gasgravityγg, The oil API Gravity and
the system temperature T.

a=0,00091(T-460)-0,0125(API)
Where Pb is the bubble point pressure in psia and T the system temperature in °R
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
Standing’sCorrelation(Example)
Given the data below, predict the bubble point pressure usingStanding’sCorrelation

a=0,00091(T-460)-0,0125(API)
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
Standing’s Correlation(Example)
Solution

Oil# a Pb Calc Pb Given % Error

1 -0,3613 2181 2377 -8,23%
2 -0,3086 2503 2620 -4,47%
3 -0,3709 1883 2051 -8,21%
4 -0,2906 3040 2884 5,42%
5 -0,3541 2885 3045 -5,27%
6 -0,1775 3562 4239 -15,98%
AAE= -6,12%
 REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
Laboratory Measurement of Bubble Point Pressure
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
The Oil Formation Volume Factor Bo, is the ratio of the volume of oil plus the gas in
solution at the reservoir temperature and pressure to the volume of oil at standard
conditions. Bo is always greater than one or equal to unity.
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
Pourquoi Bo augmente entre 3500
et 2500 psia?
Le liquide est-il saturé entre 3500 et
2500 psia?
Combien de phases distingue t-on
entre 3500 et 2500 psia?
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
About six different methods exist for predicting the oil formation volume factor:
- Standing’s Correlation
- Vasquez-Beggs Correlation
- Glaso’s correlation
- Marhoun’s Correlation
- Petrosky-Farshad Correlation
- Other Correlations
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
Standing’s Correlation
In 1981, Standing showed that Bo can be expressed in mathematical form by the
following equation.

Where T is the temperature in °R

γo Is the specific gravity of the stock tank oil
γg The specific gravity of the solution gas
REVIEW OF OIL PROPERTIES – OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
When in a system, two phases are present, we calculate the two phase or total
formation volume factor Bt
 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

Reserves calculation serves as a guide to petroleum development programs. It also

helps calculating and/or improving primary recoveries.
What is the diffrence between oil in place and reserves?
Oil reserves are obtained by applying recovery factors to the oil in place?
The oil in place can be calculated either by:
- The volumetric Method
- The material balance method
 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The volumetricmethod
The initial oil in place iscalculatedusing the formula below

Where N is the oil in place in STB

A is the area in Acre
H is the thickness in ft
Swis the water saturation
Boiis the initial oil formation volume factor and ø the porosity
 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The recoveryis the volume of oilthatcanbeproducedfrom a reservoirunderparticular

drive mechnisms.
Recovery = Initial oil in place – Oil in the reservoir at abandonment
Since the oilinitially in place isgiven as

How do wecalculate the volume of oilleft in the reservoir at abandonment?

For reservoirsundervolumetric control, thereis no water influx to relpace the
producedoil. So as oilisproduced, itisreplaced by gas.
 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

Let Sgbe the gas saturation at abandonment and Bo the oil saturation at abandonment.
The volume of oilleft in the reservoir at abandonmentisgiven as:

The recoverycanthenbecalculated as
-
 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

What are the input date required for the calculation of the recovery?

How are those data obtained?

The fractionalrecovery or recovery factor helps us calculatewhat fraction of the oil in
place canberecovered.
The fractionalreceoveryisobtained by dividingthe recovery by the the initial oil in
place .
 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

What are the input date required for the calculation of the recovery?

Aftersimplifying, weobtain the Recovery factor(RF) for a reservoirundervolumetric

control as:

Recovery Factor = Recovery/Initial oil in place

 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

For reservoirsunderhydraulic control, There is no appreciable pressure decline due to

water influx.
The initial oil in place is

The oilremaining in the reservoir at abandonmentafteroil production and water

invasion is:

Whyis the Oil formation volume factor at abandonmentstillBoi?

 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The recoverycanbecalculated as

Whichafter simplification gives

 UNDERSATURATED OIL RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL OIL IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The recovery factor canbecalculated as

Whichafter simplification becomes

The recovery factor is the ratio of the recovery to the initial oil in place
 VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL GAS IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The initial standard cubicfeet of gas in place is

WhereSwiis the interstitial water.

For a reservoirundervolumetric control, There is no change in interstitial water
saturation. This impliesthat the volume occupied by the gasdoes not change.
However, the gas formation volume factor Bgiwill change to Bga.
Giventhat change, the standard cubicfeet of gasremaining in the reservoir at
abandonmentis:
 VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL GAS IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The initial standard cubicfeet of gas in the reservoir at abandonmentis

The recoverywhichis the volume of gasproduced up to abandonment pressure is:

in SCF
Whatthenwouldbe the fractionalrecovery or recovery factor for a
volumetricgasreservoir?
 VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL GAS IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The fractionalrecovery or recovery factor canbeobtained as:

 VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL GAS IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

For a reservoirbeingproduced by water drive, the inititial standard cubicfeet of gas in

place is:

In manyreservoirsunder water drive, the pressure suffers an initial decline, afterwhich

water enters the reservoir at a rate equal to the production rate, and then the pressure
stabilizes. The stabilized pressure is the abandonment pressure. Let Bgabe the gas
formation Volume Factor at abandonment and andSgr the residualgas saturation.
 VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL GAS IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

Under the conditions specifiedabove, at abandonment, the reservoircontains

SCF of gas
So that the volume of gaswhichcanbeproduced at abandonment pressure or the
recoveryis:
 VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL GAS IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

The recovery factor canthenbeobtained as

 VOLUMETRIC GAS RESERVOIRS
CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL GAS IN PLACE AND ESTIMATION OF RECOVERIES

Exercice
A gas field is being produced under water drive such that the pressure stabilizes at 1
500 psia. The reservoir properties are given below
Sgr = 24%; Bga = 0.01122cu ft/SCF; Bgi = 0,00533 cu ft/SCF; Swi = 23%; porosity
= 22%. Calculate the unit recovery in MSCF/acre-ft and the recovery factor
Ans: recovery = 1180 MSCF/acre-ft
Recovery Factor = 85%
What is the expression of the RF when there is no initial pressure decline?
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS - DEFINITIONS
Definitions:
Gross Formation thickness: this is the total thickness of the formation
Gross pay: For an oil reservoir, this is the total thickness of the oil-bearing portion of
the formation.
Let it be noted that the formation below the oil/water contact is included in the gross
formation thickness, but is excluded from gross pay.
Net pay or effective pay is that part of the gross pay that contributes to the
hydrocarbon recovery.
RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS - DEFINITIONS
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS - DEFINITIONS
For a homogeneous and isotropicreservoir, we have seenthat the oil and gas in place
are given by:
𝐴h ( 1− 𝑆𝑤𝑖 )
𝐺=43560 ∅
𝐵𝑔𝑖
However the volumetric estimation of the oil in place is an on-goingproject. This
meansthateach time new information isavailable,, maps are updated and a new
volumetriccalculation made. In thismanner, as the fieldisdrilled, the
reservesestimatesbecome more accurate.
RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – SURFACE MAPPING
Contour maps are extensively used for the determination of hydrocarbon in place and
reserves. On a map, contours are lines drawn to connect points of equal value
compared to some chosen reference.
RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – SURFACE MAPPING
Contour maps must obey the following rules:
1- Countour lines cannot cross one another (However for the special case of a
overhanging cliff or fault, the contour appears to cross)
2- Contour lines may not merge with contour of different values(When a vertical
plane is projected upon a map, the contours appear to be merging, but in space, they
are one above the other)
3- Countours must always close or end at the edge of the map
4- Countours of the same value must be repeated to indicate a reversal of direction of
slope
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – MAP TYPES
1- Structure Maps: Structure maps are drawn to show the geometric shape of a
reservoir or formation.
2 - Isopach maps: An isopach map shows by means of countour lines the distribution
and thichness of a chosen mapping unit. The contour lines connect points of equal
vertical interval.
Reservoir engineers use two types of isopach maps: Gross isopachs and net isopachs.
The gross oil thickness isopach map countours gross pay and the net oil thickness
isopach map contours the thickness contributing to the oil recovery. As an example, a
gross oil isopach would include any shale sections within the oil bearing interval of the
formation, wheras a net isopach would not.
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – MAP TYPES
Other types of maps include:
3- Net-to-Gross pay Ratio Maps
4 – Iso-porosity maps
5 – Iso-Water Saturation Maps

The reservoir engineer uses these maps to determine the bulk productive volume of the
reservoir. The volume is usually obtained by planimetering the areas between the
isopach lines of the entire reservoir.
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – COUNTOUR MAPS
Two equations are commonly used to determine the approximate volume of the
productive zone from the planimeter reading.
- The pyramidal equation
- The trapezoidal equation
The pyramidal equation is given by

Where ∆Vb is the bulk volume in acre-ft, An is the area enclosed by the lower isopach
lines in acres, An+1 is the area enclosed by the upper isopach line in acres and h in the
interval between the isopach lines in feet. The equation is used to determine the volume
between successive isopach lines and the total volume is the sum of these separate
volumes
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – COUNTOUR MAPS
The trapezoidal equation is given by

Or for a series of successive trapezoids, it is given as

Where A0 is the area enclosed by the zero isopach line in acres; A1, A2….An are the
areas enclosed by successive isopach lines in acres; tavg is the average thickness above
the top or maximum thickness isopach line in feet. And h is the isopach interval
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – COUNTOUR MAPS
For best accuracy, the pyramidal formula should be used. However, when the ration of
successive areas is less than 0.5, the pyramidal formula should be used and when the
ratio of two successive areas is greater than 0.5, the trapezoidal formula is applied.
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – COUNTOUR MAPS
Exercice: Given the
figure and data below,
Calculate the Net
volume of an
idealized reservoir
from the isopachous
map.
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – COUNTOUR MAPS
Exercice: Given the figure and data below, Calculate the Net volume of an idealized
reservoir from the isopachous map.
Productive Planimeter Area Area in Ratio of Equation to
Area in sq in Acres Areas Interval use ∆V in acre ft
Ao 19,64
A1 16,34 5
A2 13,19 5
A3 10,05 5
A4 6,69 5
A5 3,22 5

A6 0 4
Total
For a map scale of 1 in-1000 ft, 1 sq in = 22,96 acres
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – COUNTOUR MAPS
Solution
Productive Planimeter Area Area in Ratio of Equation to
Area in sq in Acres Areas Interval use ∆V in acre ft
Ao 19,64 451
0,83 2 065,25
A1 16,34 375 5Traperzoidal
0,81 1 695,02
A2 13,19 303 5Traperzoidal
0,76 1 333,98
A3 10,05 231 5Traperzoidal
0,67 960,88
A4 6,69 154 5Traperzoidal
0,48 556,83
A5 3,22 74 5Pyramidal
- 98,57
For a map scale of 1 in-1000
A6 0 ft, 1 sq0 in = 22,96 acres 4Pyramidal
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – AVERAGING PRESSURES
One major problem in volumetric or material balance calculations is obtaining the
average reservoir pressure. This average pressure can either be calculated as Well
average pressure, areal average pressure or volumetric average.
For the well average pressure, the formula is:

And for the areal and volumetric average pressure, the formulae are:
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – AVERAGING PRESSURES
Reservoir pressure survey showing isobaric lines drawn from measures bottom-hole
pressures.
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – AVERAGING PRESSURES
Exercice: Given the data below, calculate the well average pressure, areal average
pressure and volumetric average pressure.

Pressure, Drainage Estimated

Well N° psia Area, Acres Thickness
1 2750 160 20
2 2680 125 25
3 2840 190 26
4 2700 145 31
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – AVERAGING PRESSURES
Solution:
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – AVERAGING PRESSURES
Exercice
Given the section of the isobaric and isopachous map and the data below, calculate
the volumetric average pressure:
 RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS – AVERAGING PRESSURES
Solution