Module :SPLA022

Chapter : The respiratory system

17, Silverthorn 7th edition
Lecturer : Ms MN Mokabane
Email : nelly.mokabane@ul.ac.za
Department : Physiology & Environmental Health
Office: :1043A/1022, 1st floor, Old Q block
 Ground Rules
 Mute mics
 Raise hand when you have a
question
 Class rep male & female, cellphone
number, email address (Whatsapp
Group)
 Consultation time: send email
 Email response turnaround time is
not more than 24 working hrs
 Announcements
 Classes:
 Tuesday 11:10–12:50
 Thursday 7:30–09:10
 Practicals:
 Wednesday 11:00–17:00 (Pre/post lab quiz and assignment)
 Quizzes after every chapter
 Compulsory
 Contribute to semester mark
 Class reps: Mr Puleng Tshegofatso (PTN) Raphotle & Ms
Muthakhi (M) Mukhuba (Whatsapp Group)
 The respiratory system

OUTLINE:
 Introduction: Functions
 Classification of respiration: external and internal respiration
 External respiration processes:
 Ventilation (inspiration and expiration)
 Gas exchange between the lungs & blood
 Transport of gases
 External respiration: Primary components
 Surface area of the alveolar
 Partial pressure gradients of the gasses
 Matching of perfusion and ventilation
 Boyles law
 External respiration (inspiration & expiration)
 Intrapleural pressure changes during ventilation processes
 Elastic behaviour of the lungs
 Factors affecting air flow
 Diseases arising from factors affecting air flow
 Four primary functions of the respiratory system
 Exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the
blood: Primary – Obtain oxygen (O2) for use by the body
cells and to eliminate carbon dioxide (CO2) from the cells

 Homeostatic regulations of body pH: Lungs can alter

the body pH by selectively retaining or excreting CO2
(acid base section)

 Protection from inhaled pathogens and irritating

substances: respiratory epithelium help to trap and
destroy the harmful substance before it cab enter the
body

 Vocalization: air moving across the vocal cords creates

vibrations used for speech, singing, and other forms of
communication.
 The respiratory system?
 network of organs and tissues that help with breathing.

 Cellular Respiration: intracellular reaction of oxygen with

organic molecules to produce carbon dioxide

 Respiration:

 External respiration: exchange of gases between the

environment and the bodys cells/bloodstream

primary three components of external respiration:

the surface area of the alveolar membrane, the partial
pressure gradients of the gasses, and the matching of
perfusion and ventilation (in detail next slides)

 Internal respiration: gas exchange between the

bloodstream and tissues, and cellular respiration.
 External respiration
1. Ventilation – gas exchange between the
atmosphere and the lungs
(Ventilation/breathing)
 Inspiration (inhalation) - movement of air
into the lungs
 Expiration (exhalation) - movement of air
out of the lungs
2. Gas exchange between the lungs and blood
3. Transport of gas exchange (O2 and CO2) at
the blood
4. Gas exchange at blood and tissues.
 External respiration mechanism: surface area of the alveolar membrane
Alveoli- the tiny air sacs at the end of the
bronchioles, in which gas exchange
occurs
 The alveoli have a very high surface
area to volume ratio that allows for
efficient gas exchange.
 The alveoli are covered with a high
density of capillaries that provide
many sites for gas exchange.
 The walls of the alveolar membrane
are thin and covered with a fluid,
extra-cellular matrix that provides a
surface for gas molecules in the air
of the lungs to diffuse into, from which
they can then diffuse into the
capillaries.
 Type I alveolar cells – Thin
squamous cell
 Type II alveolar cells secretes
pulmonary surfactant. This
substance facilitates lung expansion
by opposing surface tension
 Macrophages – Phagocyte microbes
and debris
 Separation of lungs from surrounding structures
 Lungs occupy most of the thoracic (chest)
cavity
 Lungs are separated from the thoracic wall
and surrounding structures by the pleural
sac
 The interior of the pleural sac is known as
the pleural cavity
 The thoracic cavity is also separated from
the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm
 External respiration mechanism: pressure gradient
 Respiration mostly takes place through the pressure
gradient
 Air moves from region of high pressure to low
pressure
 Atmospheric (barometric) pressure
 Is produced by the weight of the air on objects on
the surface of the earth
 Equals 760 mm Hg at sea levels
 Decreases with increasing altitude above sea level
 Minor fluctuation occur at any height because of
changing weather conditions
 Intra-alveolar pressure
 Pressure within the alveoli
 Always equilibrate with atmospheric pressure
(760mm Hg)
 If pressure in the alveoli is less than the
atmospheric, inspiration takes place
 If pressure in the alveoli is greater than the
atmospheric, expiration takes place
 External respiration mechanism: pressure gradient cont
 Intrapleural pressure
 Pressure within the pleural sac
 Usually 756 mm Hg at rest but drops to 754 mm Hg
during inspiration
 Does not change since the pleural sac is a closed
sac with no opening (no air entering or leaving the
sac)
 Puncture of the pleural sac leads to Pneumothorax
 Pneumothorax is a condition whereby air is found in
the pleural sac
 This equilibrate the intrapleural pressure with
atmospheric and intra-alveolar pressure leading to
a collapsed lung
 Transmural pressure gradient
 Pressure difference between intra alveolar
pressure and intrapleural pressure
 Helps with lung expansion to fill the thoracic cavity
 Pneumothorax diminishes this pressure since the
pressure difference between the atmosphere and
intrapleural will be zero
 External respiration mechanism: ventilation and perfusion matching
 The exchange of gas and blood supply to the lungs must be
balanced in order to facilitate efficient external respiration. While a
severe ventilation–perfusion mismatch indicates severe lung
disease, minor imbalances can be corrected by maintaining air flow
that is proportional to capillary blood flow, which maintains the
balance of ventilation and perfusion (the flow of blood or fluid to
tissues and organs, Alveoli are perfused by capillaries so the
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide can take place, ).
 Perfusion in the capillaries adjusts to changes in partial pressure of
oxygen (Po2) (a sensitive and non-specific indicator of the lungs' ability
to exchange gases with the atmosphere). Constriction in the airways)
(such as from the bronchospasms in an asthma attack) lead to
decreased PAO2 because the flow of air into the lungs is slowed.
 In response, the arteries being supplied by the constricted airway
undergo vasocontriction, reducing the flow of blood into those
alveoli so that the perfusion doesn’t become much greater relative to
the decreased ventilation (a type of ventilation–perfusion mismatch
called a shunt).
 Alternatively, breathing in higher concentrations of oxygen from an
oxygen tank will cause vasodilation and increased blood perfusion in
the capillaries.
 Ventilation adjusts from changes in PACO2. When airflow becomes
higher relative to perfusion, PACO2 decreases, so the bronchioles
will constrict in order to maintain to the balance between airflow
(ventilation) and perfusion. When airflow is reduced, PACO2
increases, so the bronchioles will dilate in order to maintain the
balance.
 Boyles law
 Pressure differences taking place during
respiration follow the Boyle’s law
 States that: The pressure exerted by a gas in
a closed container is inversely proportional
to the volume of the gas, at any constant
temperature
 As the volume of a gas increases, the pressure
exerted by the gas decreases proportionately.
Conversely, the pressure increases
proportionately as the volume decreases.
 Ventilation: inspiration
 Changes in lung volumes are
brought by respiratory muscles
 Respiratory muscle do not act directly
on the lung to change their volume
 The respiratory muscle changes the
volume of the thoracic cavity
resulting in change in the lung volume
 Inspiratory muscles: Diaphragm and
external intercostal muscle (passive
breathing)
 Forced breathing: Sternocleidomastoid and
scalenus (further expand chest)

 Contraction of inspiratory muscle

initiate inspiration
 Ventilation: inspiration (summary)
 The diaphragm and external
intercostal muscles are stimulated to
contract, enlarging the thoracic cavity
 When the diaphragm contracts, it
descends downward, enlarging the
volume of the thoracic cavity
 As the thoracic cavity enlarges, the
lungs are also forced to expand to fill
the larger thoracic cavity which then
decreases the intra-alveolar
pressure
 Ventilation: expiration
 Expiration is caused by relaxation of
inspiratory muscles
 As the inspiratory muscle relaxes the
volume of the thoracic cavity
decreases
 This increases intra-alveolar
pressure leading to passive expiration
 Forced expiration is a result of
relaxation of inspiratory muscles
and contraction of internal
intercostal muscle and abdominal
muscles
 Contraction of the internal intercostal
muscle and abdominal muscle further
increases intra-alveolar pressure
Intrapleural pressure changes during ventilation processes
 Elastic behaviour of the lungs
 Elasticity of the lungs involves compliance and elastic
recoil
 Compliance – how much effort is required to stretch the
lungs/ a measure of the lungs ability to stretch and expand
 A highly compliant lung stretches further for a given
increase in the pressure difference than a less
compliance lung does
 Low compliant lung- stiff lungs, with high elastic recoil
e.g thick balloon
 Elastic recoil – how readily the lungs rebound after being
stretch
 Pulmonary elastic behavior depends on elastin fibres and
alveolar surface tension
 Factors affecting air flow (F)
 Resistance
 F=(△𝑃)/𝑅
 As the difference between the
atmospheric and intra-alveolar
pressures (△P) is greater, the air
flow is also greater
 However, if the resistance (R)
increases, the airflow is
decreased
 The major determinant of
resistance is the radius of the
conducting airways
 The autonomic nervous system
controls the contraction of the
smooth muscle in the walls of the
bronchioles, changing their radii
 Sympathetic stimulation and
epinephrine cause bronchodilation,
parasympathetic stimulation
causing bronchoconstriction
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)
 Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease
increases resistance:
 Chronic bronchitis is
the long-term
inflammatory condition of
the respiratory airways
 Asthma is the
obstruction of the airways
due to inflammation
 Emphysema is the
collapse of the alveoli
 Pneumothorax is a
collapsed lung while
Emphysema is a
collapsed alveoli
 Lung volumes and capacities
 Respiratory volume - various volumes of air moved by or
associated with the lungs at a given point in the respiratory
cycle. There are four major types of respiratory volumes: tidal,
residual, inspiratory reserve, and expiratory reserve
 Tidal volume (TV): The volume of air entering or leaving the
lungs during a single breath
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): The extra volume of air
that can be maximally inspired over and above the typical
resting tidal volume (forced inspiration)
 Inspiratory capacity (IC): The maximum volume of air that
can be inspired at the end of a normal quiet expiration
(IC=IRV+TV)
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): The extra volume of air
that can be actively expired by maximal contraction beyond the
normal volume of air after a tidal volume (forced expiration)
The end…