NUTRITIONAL

BIOCHEMISTRY
 Introduction
• Food is the central subject matter of Nutrition.

• Nutrition is the selection, preparation, ingestion, assimilation

and utilization of nourishing substances in food(and drink) called
nutrients by an organism for growth and development,
maintenance of metabolic processes, repair, energy supply, and
which help the body to prevent and fight diseases more
effectively.

• It is therefore obvious that the science of nutrition is not only

the study of food digestion and absorption , but also a study of
the structures and functions of the absorbed nutrients and the
way and manner in which they perform those functions.
Intro cont.
• It appears that good nutrition, as well as personalized
nutrition may indeed be one of our most valuable and
under-utilized resources.
• The main trust of nutritional biochemistry is on the
enzymatic and other biomolecular interactions which
facilitate the uptake and utilization of nutrients, and
whose mal-functioning leads to nutritional diseases.
• Biochemistry therefore occupies a unique position in
the understanding and application of nutrition in
health and disease, and provides solution to problems
of nutrition.
Intro cont.
• Food is any liquid or solid substance which when
ingested(conventionally) provides nourishment
(energy, growth, development ,repair, metabolic
processes etc.) to the organism.
• Food is a complex of nutrients and non-nutrients
which are also integral parts of the animal or plant
tissues that are consumed as food.
• The food architecture is dismantled(digested) in the
alimentary canal mediated by specific enzymes and
digestive fluids to release the nutrients which are then
absorbed or assimilated individually.
• A good diet is that which provides requisite amounts of all the
nutrients from a variety of foods. No single food supplies all the
nutrients in adequate amounts.
• Nutrient is the active principle or ultimate nourishing chemical
substance in food. Constituents which do not serve any nourishing
function are considered non-nutrients or a-nutrients.
Classes of Foods & Staples
The five classes of foods are
• Milk and milk products
• Meat and poultry
• Vegetables
• Fruits
• Cereals and legumes
 TYPES AND CLASSES OF NUTRIENTS
• Nutrients are generally classified into five: Carbohydrates
(carbs), proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins (the sixth is
water).
• Carbs and fats provide energy.
• Proteins provide amino acids for growth and repair of worn
out tissues(but can be converted to carbs and used to
provide energy).
• Minerals and vitamins are required in small amounts, not
directly used in the process of growth and repair, but
participate in metabolism and the regulation of body
functions.
• Carbs, fats and proteins are called macronutrients
because they are needed in larger amounts(gram qty)
• Vitamins and minerals which are required in relatively
small (mg or µg)amounts are referred to as
micronutrients.
• Some nutrients are present in a wide variety of foods,
so that there is little likely hood of a deficiency
occurring e.g carbs & fats. On the other hand, some
are distributed in a limited number of foods and will
be present in less than optimal amounts if the variety
in the diet is limited e.g some vitamins and minerals.
• Dietary source(foodstuff) of a nutrient is determined not
only by the concentration of the nutrient, but also by such
other factors as:
the chemical form in which the nutrient is present and the
presence of other nutrients or chemical compounds.
digestion and assimilation of different chemical forms of a
given nutrient which do not occur at the same degree in the
body; some forms are biologically more available than
others.(e.g monoglutamate form of folic acid is better
absorbed than the polyglutamate form).
the nutritive value of a food which is a reflection of the
level of biological availability of the component nutrients
 Functions of Macronutrients
Proteins

• Protein is a constituent of every living cell. Apart from

water, protein forms the major part of lean body tissue,
totalling about 17% of body weight.
• Almost half of this protein is in muscle, 1/5th in borne
and cartilages, 1/10th in the skin and the rest in other
tissues and body fluids such as blood, glands and nervous
tissue.
• All enzymes are protein, many hormones are either
protein or protein derivatives. Others include genetic
information(as nucleoproteins), immune components.
Protein Sources
• Plants ( e.g nuts and legumes)can provide ample amounts of
protein (about 35%) in addition to providing fibre and a
variety of vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals.
• Protein is supplied by the diet, as well as by the recycling of
body proteins which provide and add to a.as pool available
for protein synthesis and repair.
• Plant proteins also contain no cholesterol and little
saturated fat, unless added during processing, may however
be deficient in one or more essential a.as.
• Animal proteins make up about 70% of dietary protein which
is considered to supply adequate a.as. e.g meat, poultry, fish,
milk and milk products.
Protein Quality
• The quality of a dietary protein is primarily determined by:
• the kind and proportion of amino acids it contains compared to
reference protein e.g egg white protein and the food’s digestibility
(amount of a.as absorbed).
• Digestibility of animal protein is relatively high (90- 100%), while that
of plant protein is lower(70%).
• Protein that contains all essential amino acids in proportion capable of
promoting growth and maintenance when they are the sole source of
protein in the diet, are described as complete protein or good quality
protein or protein of high biological value.
• All animal proteins, except gelatin, are complete proteins that can
meet human amino acid requirement.
• Incomplete protein or protein of low biological value would not
support growth because they have one or more limited essential
• Amino acid present in the smallest amount relative to
the amount required for growth is called the “limiting
amino acid”. Methionine is limiting in legume protein,
while lysine is limiting in cereal protein. The message
therefore is to eat a combination of several different
vegetable protein in a meal.
• This concept is important in vegetarians, who should
have a diet adequate in protein as that of people who
eat both animal and vegetable protein.
• Typical examples of good combinations are: milk(soy)
and puddin, rice and beans, maize and soybean, peanut
butter on bread, fura da nono, crayfish and soups or
Factors that Affect Protein Utilization in the
body
• Amino acid balance – i.e the relationship of one a.a to the other in the
food compares to the pattern of reqmt., which in turn depends on the
age of the consumer.
• Calorie inadequacy – i.e when calorie (carbs) intake is critically low ,
protein will be deaminated and used as source of energy.
• Protein digestibility.
• The concept of protein quality and utilization applies only under
conditions in which protein intakes are equal to or less than the
amount of protein needed to meet reqmts for ea.as. When protein
intakes exceed this amount, the efficiency of protein use is decreased,
even with the highest quality proteins. This happens because, once
ea.a needs have been met, the remaining a.as cannot be readily
stored and are primarily degraded for use as energy.
Dietary protein serves many roles:

• It is an essential structural component of all cells.

• It is important for maintaining of essential secretions such as digestive
enzymes and peptides or protein hormones.
• It is needed for the synthesis of plasma proteins, which are essential
for maintaining osmotic balance, acid-base balance, transport of
substances and in immunity.
• Synthesis of glucose and energy source.
• However, an average adult consumes far more protein than needed to
carry out these fxns.
• Excess protein is treated as a source of energy; glucogenic amino
acids are converted to glucose while ketogenic ones to fatty acids and
keto acids.
• Both kinds of amino acids are eventually converted to triglycerols in
adipose tissues if fat and carb supply are already adequate to meet
energy requirements. So for most of us, high protein diets increase
adipose tissue depot. It is often assumed that the body has no storage
deport for protein, and thus adequate dietary protein must be
supplied through food. However, this is not quite accurate.
• There is certain % of body protein that undergoes a constant process
of breakdown and re-synthesis. For instance in the fasting state, the
breakdown of protein is enhanced, and the resulting amino acids are
utilized for the synthesis of glucose, non-protein nitrogenous cmpds
and essential secretory and plasma proteins.
• In the fed state, some of these amino acids are utilized as biosynthetic
precursors.
• Thus, the turnover of body protein is a normal process and an
essential feature of nitrogen balance.
• Positive nitrogen balance
• Is obtained during growth, pregnancy, lactation, contralescing in adult.
• Is characterized by a net increase in body pro stores resulting from
increase dietary intake( amt taken is in excess of what is needed)
• Negative nitrogen balance
• Is obtained when dietary intake is low and inadequate
• It means that the aas that are used for energy prod and biosynthesis
are not adequately replaced
• Are obtained during injury when there is net destruction of tissues,
also in major truma or illness when bodys adaptive response causing
increase catabolism of the protein
• Normal adult should have Nitrogen equilibrium
• Protein Sparing Effect:
• Dietary intake of fat and carb determines protein utilization and
requirements.
• If fat and carb are present in insufficient quantities, some of the
dietary protein must be used for energy generation and it becomes
unavailable for building and replacing tissues. Thus as E0( calories)
content of the diet from fat and carb increases, the need for protein
decreases. This is referred to as protein sparing.
• Carb is more efficient at sparing protein than fat because it can be
used as an energy source by almost all tissues, whereas fat cannot.
Carbohydrates
• The chief metabolic role of dietary carb is for Eo production. Any carb
in excess is converted to glycogen and TG for storage in the body.
• Consequently ,diets high in carbs result in higher steady-state levels of
glucokinase and some enzymes of PPPW and TG synthesis. Diets low
in carbs result in higher steady-state levels of some of the
gluconeogenic, fatty acid oxidation, amino acid catabolic enzymes
etc. Glycogen stores are also affected by the carb content of the diet
(glycogenesis/glycogenolysis).
• The most common form of carb intolerance are Diabetes
mellitus(DM) and lactase insufficiency
• Much of the nutritional dispute in the area of carb intake centres
around the effect of carb on blood glucose and TGs levels.
• The effect of carb in a particular food is determined by the rate of
digestion and absorption of the carb and by other components of the
food.
• Example soluble fibre, protein and fat all blunt the effect of carbs on
blood glucose levels.
• The concept of Glycemic Index(GI) is used to describe the effect of
carbs on blood glucose.
• GI is defined as the effect of 50g of carb in a particular food on blood
glucose level compared to 50g of pure glucose, or it is the response of
blood glucose level to 50g of glucose in a food compared to 50g of
pure glucose.
• It has been found that carb content vary in even same type of foods,
and so it is often mis-leading, hence the concept of Glycemic Load is
now used, which is simply the GI x the amount of carb in a standard
serving size of that food.
• Except for lactose(milk carb) dietary carb is found exclusively in foods
of plant origin including sugars of various forms.
• Therefore, high processing and milling of plant source foods should be
discouraged. For instance most of the nutrients are found in the bran
layers of cereals, and so nutritive value of cereal products depends
largely on the amount of the bran retained when cereal is milled.
• To provide for total body energy needs, carbs intake should be
considerably higher, ranging from 45 to 65% of total energy intake.
This should include mostly fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, legumes and
whole grains, with little added sugars and caloric sweeteners
DIETARY FIBER
• However, some fibres can to some extent be broken down or
fermented by intestinal microflora based on their physical and
chemical properties.
• Dietary fibre comprises those natural components of foods that
cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes asides health
benefits, and can be added to foods- functional fibre.
• Biologically important physical properties of dietary fibre include its
high water-holding capacity, viscosity and ability to bind or absorb
other smaller compounds e.g lignin & gum.
• Each of these properties exerts unique effect on human metabolism.
• Vegetable, wheat, grains are best sources of water-insoluble
fibres(cellulose,hemicell.,lignin).
• Fruits, oats, legumes are best sources of water –soluble fibres(pectins, gums,
mucilages).
• NB: A balanced diet should include food sources of both soluble and insoluble
fibres.
• In general, dietary fibre
• Has a laxative effect on GIT function
• Increases faecal bulk due to its high water-holding capacity. The more coarse and
resistant to degradation by gut bacteria, the more the water-holding capacity.
• Lowers plasma cholesterol level.
• Decreases nutrient availability.
• Reduces glycemic response to carb-containing meals by slowing
down the rate of digestion and absorption leading to decreased blood
sugar and insulin.
• Consumption of staple diets deficient in dietary fibre has been
implicated in the aetiology of a number of human GIT diseases such
as cancer of the colon, rectum, appendicitis, diverticulitis etc.
• Dietary fibre is an important index of food quality since it is indicated
in nutrition facts labels
LIPIDS
• After water and carb, the most abundant nutrient in foods supply is fat.
• Some sources of fat are easily recognized as visible fats and oils (butter,
margarine, salad cream, fat surrounding meat etc), which account for less
than half of the fat in diet. The rest is invisible fat (in meat fibres, egg yolk,
whole milk, nuts and cereals etc)
• Triglycerides are the most common types of fat found in foods and the
body. Others include phospholipid and sterols e.g cholesterol.
• The role of fat in diet include:
• - concentrated source of energy (9kcal/g)
• - satiety value (delays onset of hunger after feeding)
• - carrier of fat-soluble vitamins(vit A,D,E,K).
•- adds flavour , palatability and test appeal to food.
•- used as emulsifier e.g by food manufacturers to improve
texture. e.g lecithin.
•- produces rancid by-products due to double bond breakdown
by UV light and oxygen. This impacts unpleasant odour and taste
(rancidity) to food thereby reducing the quantity of consumption and
shelf life.
• Antioxidants such as Vitamin E helps to protect foods against
rancidity. Synthetic antioxidants used by food manufacturers include
vit C, butylated hydroxyanisol (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT).Sealing also helps to prevent O2 from oxidising food products
Fats play some roles in the body.
- as energy reserve stored as triglycerides.
- as an essential constituent of the cell membrane, e.g
phospholipids, cholesterol.
- source of EFA e.g omega 3,6,9 fatty acids.
- as precursor for steroid hormones e.g cholesterol,
hormone-like prostaglandins and leukotrienes e.g linolenic
and arachidonic acids.
- protector of some organs such as kidney, heart from
physical shock and as insulator fat depots beneath the skin against env.
and temp.
• Stored fat in adipocytes (18-24% for women, 15-18% for men) is
considered ideal or normal. In excess of these are considered
overweight and extreme cases as obese
• A common characteristics symptom of essential fatty acids deficiency
is scally dermatitis.
• High dietary levels of fats causes
High serum lipid levels
Which causes high risk of heart disease
Excess fat is normally deposited in adipose tissue which leads to
obesity, creating increase risk of heart disease, diabetes and stroke.
• Recent studies also shows that high fat intake are associated with risk
of colon, breast and prostate cancer.
 Micronutrients
• These are vitamins, minerals and (phytochemicals), required in
minute quantities by the body, but whose prolonged absence from
the diet leads to both general and specific disease symptoms.
• They play a vital role in human metabolism because they are involved
in almost every biochemical reaction pathway. Therefore the science
of nutrition is concerned not only with the biochemistry of the
micronutrients but also with whether they are present in adequate
amounts in the diet.
• The micronutrient content of each food is different, so it’s best to eat
a variety of foods to get enough vitamins and minerals
• An adequate intake is necessary for optimal health, as each vitamin
and mineral has a specific role in your body
• Vitamins and minerals are vital for growth, immune function, brain
development and many other important functions
• Depending on their function, certain micronutrients also play a role in
preventing and fighting disease
 Vitamins

• Over thirteen vitamins are currently known to be essential and

required by man. They are usually divided into two grps: Fat soluble
and Water soluble.
• Fat Soluble vits are: Vitamins A, D, E, and K.

• Water soluble vits include:

- Thiamine or B1
- Riboflavin or B2
- Niacin or B3
- Pyridoxine or B6
- Pantothenic acid
- Cobalamine Vit B12
- Vit C or Ascorbic acid
- Biotin
- Folic acid
• All but vit. C are collectively referred to as the B complex vitamins
because, historically, they constitute what was originally thought to
be a single compound called “vitamin B”.
• All the vitamins have been isolated in pure forms and their molecular
structures determined. They are available as pharmaceutical
preparations, dietary supplements, or as biochemicals for research
and analytical use.
• A vitamin can lose its ability to perform its fxn in the body once the
fundamental chemical property is altered.
• Water soluble vitamins carry out their fxns in the body in the form of
co-enzymes or prosthetic groups of enzymes except vit C (a reducing
agent).
• Water soluble vits are not stored in appreciable amounts in the body,
but excreted in the urine when in excess except vit B12.
• All animal species except a few, cannot synthesize most of the vits
from other food constituents except vit D and niacin in humans.
• Plants and various MCOs synthesize virtually all the vits either as such
or as pro-vitamin. Hence animals depend on plants and MCOs for
their supply of vits.
• Vitamins, especially the fat soluble, may be toxic to the body when
consumed in high doses(megavitamin syndromes e.g of vit A, D and
B6).
• Each vit has distinct metabolic roles and characteristic deficiency
symptoms. The nature, occurrence and metabolic fxns of the vits are
summarized as follows:
 Mineral Nutrients
• At least 22 elements in the periodic table are known to be essential to
man, but only about 18 are regarded as mineral nutrients. So dietary
minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms other
than C,H,N,O which are not considered as such because they are
present in nearly all organic molecules. Mineral elements are inorganic
in nature, so they must be derived from the diet.
• Minerals serve one or more of three main fxns in the body:
- as constituents of skeletal tissues (e.g bone, teeth)
- as cofactors to enzymes, carrier proteins, protein hormones
and other metabolic proteins.
- as electrolytes in body fluids and cells.
• Mineral elements are classified into two groups based on the relative
quantity required in the body.
 Macrominerals :

• With RDA greater than 200mg/day, serve structural role and as

electrolytes. These include :
• Calcium, a common electrolyte, but also needed structurally (for
muscle and digestive system, bone strength, neutralizes acidity, may
help clear toxins by binding, provides signaling ions for nerve and
membrane fxns.
• Chlorine as Chloride ions, also a very common electrolyte typically
consumed as NaCl or common salt.
• Magnesium required for processing ATP and related rxns, builds
bones, causes strong paristalsis, increases flexibility, increases
alkalinity.
• Phosphorus required as component of bones, essential for energy
processing.
• Potassium, a very common electrolyte (heart and nerve health).
• Sodium, also a very common electrolyte, generally not found in
dietary supplements despite being needed in large quantities,
because it is very common in foods as sodium chloride. Excessive
sodium intake can deplete calcium and magnesium leading to high
blood pressure and osteoporosis.
• Sulphur, is a component of some essential amino acids. Sulphur is not
consumed alone, but in the form of sulphur-containing amino acids.
 Microminerals or Trace minerals or elements
• Are required in traced amounts because of their catalytic role in
enzymes. RDA < 200mg/day.
• Cobalt, required for synthesis of vit.B12 family of coenzymes. Animals
cannot synthesize B12 and must obtain it from the diet.
• Copper, required as component of many redox enzymes, including
cytochrome oxidase, superoxide dismutase etc.
• Chromium, required for carb metabolism.
• Iodine, required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones.
• Iron, required for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other
proteins.
• Manganese, a component of Mn-SOD; a superoxide anion scavenger,
pyr. carboxylase, arginase (urea cycle)
• Molybdenum, required for xanthine oxidase/DHs, sulphate oxidase
and bacterial nitrogenase, nitrate reductase.
• Nickel, present in urease.
• Selenium, required for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins).
• Vanadium, no specific biochemical fxn identified in humans yet.
• Zinc, required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alc.
DH, carbonic anhydrase, SOD etc.
 Factors Affecting Bioavailability of Micronutrients
• The gross nutrient contained in a given food item may not be wholly
available to the consumer. Bioavailability of nutrient is influenced by
many factors, notably:
• Stability to cooking or processing
• Chemical form in which it is present
• Nature of other constituents of the diet e.g anti-nutritional factors
• Efficiency of an individual digestive system.
 Malnutritional Diseases
“With diseases related to malnutrition on the rise, the challenge
is not only to ensure food security, but also to address the
nutritional quality of the food being consumed and its impact on
health.” - Dr Frenc 2012,
Malnutrition is a condition resulting from a relative or absolute
deficiency or excess of one or more nutrients (including
micronutrient deficiency), which may or may not manifest
clinically.
When there is no clinical manifestation, the condition may only
be detected from biochemical indices of nutritional status.
• There are 5 forms of malnutrition:
Starvation – implies that there is an almost zero intake of food.
Undernutrition – pathological condition in which there is inadequate
consumption of required amount of food over an extended period of time
(prolonged starvation)
Specific deficiency – pathological condition that results from relative or
complete absence of an individual nutrient in the staple diet e.g iodine in
goitre, Fe in anemia, vit. A in night blindness etc.
 Overnutrition – is a condition that results from the consumption of
excessive amount of food over an extended period of time.
 Imbalance – is a disease state that results from a disproportionate
nutrient composition of the staple diet. E.g metabolic syndromes.
 The 5 forms of malnutrition can be grouped into 2 broad categories:
(1) Condition of excess intake (e.g overnutrition and imbalance) –
result in overloading of the particular metabolic rxn or fxn of the
excessive nutrient. This may also result in diversion of the excess to
an alternative pathway for catabolism or storage, or even
overproduction of the product of the pw involving the nutrient.
e.g - in obesity, excess carb is diverted to synthesis of fats. Which is
responsible for the fattening xtics of obesity.
- excessive dietary protein is catabolised to produce ammonia, which is
channelled to the urea cycle for detoxification. Abnormally high level of
urea is excreted, which overburdens the kidney.
- Also when the rate of generation of the product of a nutrient exceeds the
rate of excretion, the surplus is deposited in tissues. e.g in
hypervitaminosis D which can lead to hypercalceamia.

(2)Condition of inadequate intake ( starvation, undernutrition and

specific deficiency). These can result in reduction in the rate of flux in
the metabolic pws involving the missing nutrient.
 Example of condition of inadequate intakes of public importance is
protein-energy malnutrition(PEM).
 Protein–Energy Malnutrition(PEM)
It is the most common form of malnutrition especially in
developing countries where inadequate protein and energy
intakes in infants and young children is all too common.
Symptoms vary from case to case, but its common to classify
most cases as either marasmus or kwashiorkor.
While marasmus is caused by inadequate intake (starvation) of
both protein and energy, kwashiorkor is caused by
inadequate intake of protein with adequate intake of energy.
However, the diets that lead to both conditions are similar
Marasmic infants will have a thin wasted appearance,
with small for age permanent stunting in physical and
mental development, if the condition continues for
longer period. (tissue protein will be broken down to
supply energy, lack of protein will hinder growth,
development and repair). Other features include:
underweight, depleted subcutaneous fats and muscles
• Diarrhoea and vomiting, hunger and continuous cries, thin flaccid
and wrinkled skin, bony appearance, mucous membrane of
mouth are usually redish, thin and lustreless hair, dehydration
and electrolyte imbalance, anaemia due to reduced Hb and
haematocrit levels, subnormal basal metabolic rate, no odema
present.
Prognosis is usually good, recovery is possible with adequate
dietary treatment of higher calories.
Causes of marasmus could be : exclusive breastfeeding by a
malnourished mother, insufficient breast milk, prolonged
breastfeeding without an appropriate complementary food,
premature birth, malformation of the mouth and nose that may
interfere with adequate feeding.

In Kwashiorkor, the limiting nutrient is protein both in

quantity and quality( of low biological value)
The condition is common in artificially fed and weaned children
on low quality protein e.g cereals, starchy roots, etc
Predisposing factors include acute diarrhea, respiratory infection,
measles etc. It can therefore occur in older children ages 2-3yrs.
Common clinical features include :
- Soft and painless oedema, hence no wasting.
- Loss of appetite and reduced activity.
- Dry, silky and thin hair, skin and hair discolouration.
- Mild to moderate anaemia(low intake of Fe and Cu).
- Retarded growth and development.
• The condition can be managed by feeding with diet rich in good
quality protein e.g milk and good combination of foods rich in
protein.
Causes of severe under-nutrition in developing countries
include poverty and the resultant lack of money for
adequate food, poor sanitation and hygiene, poor
portable water supply etc.
The development of appropriate complementary foods
for infants from indigenous foods is a goal of many
projects.
The message therefore is food availability, affordability,
palatability, compatibility with cultural beliefs, ease of
preparation at the community or household level.
The most devastating result of both conditions (marasmus and
kwarshiokor) is reduced ability to fight infection due to reduced
no. of T-lymphocytes( reduced cell-mediated immune
response), defects in generation of phagocytic cells and
production of immunoglobulins, interferon and other
components of the immune system. So many die from 20
infection rather than from the starvation.
PEM can also occur in certain hospital settings. For instance,
patients who have not eaten for several weeks or months prior
to visiting hospital with chronic or debilitating illness, major
trauma, severe infection or major surgery, all of which may
cause a large –ve NB.
Excess Protein – Energy Intake
• Most adults consume far more protein than needed to
maintain NB. Possible effects of high protein and energy
intake include:
obesity and overweight -largely due to lifestyle changes
such as lack of exercise and genetic factors. One striking
clinical feature of overweight or obesity is marked
elevation of serum free f.as, cholesterol and TGs
irrespective of the dietary intake of fat.
- This is because obesity is associated with increased in
number and/or size of adipocytes. The lipid-laden
adipocyte decreases synthesis of hormones such as
adiponectin that enhances insulin responsiveness 
insulin resistance  increased activity of hormone-
sensitive lipase  increased in circulating f.as  insulin
resistance in muscle and liver  hyper-insulinemia
which stimulates the sympathetic nervous system 
retention of sodium and water  vasoconstriction and
increased blood pressure.
- Excess f.as in the blood are carried to the liver and
converted to TGs and cholesterol which are released as
VLDL particles.
Eventually, the capacity of the pancreas to produce insulin
declines which leads to higher fasting blood sugar levels and
decreased glucose tolerance.
- Because of these metabolic changes, there will be high risk of
obesity and coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes
mellitus, inflammatory diseases, bone and joint disorders,
breathing disorders etc.
- All of these metabolic changes are reversible especially
through reduction to ideal body weight.
• THANK YOU
Reading Assignment
• Identify water soluble vitamins that are
- Energy-releasing vitamins
- Hematopoietic vitamins
• Write out the chemical structures of the parent vitamins and
their coenzyme/ active forms.
• How are the vitamins synthesized (where applicable) and
activated to the active forms?
• Outline a typical reaction or pathway in which the coenzyme
or active form of each vitamin participates.
 Explain the Biochemical basis of the following Marasmic Features
- Thin wasted, flaccid wrinkle skin, bonny appearance
- Physical Stunting and impaired Mental Development
- Underweight(depleted muscle and fat deport)
- Vomiting/ Diarrhea
- Hunger/cries
- Dry, silky,discoloured Lustreless hair
- Dehydration, electrolyte imbalance
- Sub-normal BMR
- Absence of oedema
• Elevation of serum free f.as, cholesterol and TGs in the condition of
obesity/overweight
• Soft and painless oedema in Kwashiorkor