APPROACHES AND PRACTICE

IN PEST MANAGEMENT
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Definition of Terms
• 1. Approach refers to the method or strategy directed towards the
prevention/control of the pest. Such control/preventive tactics may be directed
towards specific point of view such as:
• A. Towards the soil- for soil borne pathogens and soil insects:
•Damping-oof disease (fungal pathogens)
•Root-knot disease (nematode)
•Ant on seedbed (carry out seed)
•Cutworm on seedling (defoliation/cut seedlings)
•White grub (root feeding)
Definition of Terms
• B. Towards the pest- done through eradication and exclusionary measure that are targeted towards
the pest.
• Spraying
• Hand picking
• Trap
• Avoidance
• C. Towards the environment(micro-environment)- done through manipulation and alteration of the
micro-environment(ex. Canopy, root zone area, direct vicinity area, etc) so as to prevent
predisposing factors disease/pest development
• Changing soil pH, structure,fertility,OM,etc
• Weeding
• Avoid excessive watering
• Removal of shady plant for sunlight
• Use of screen house
Definition of Terms
2. Practice- refers to the work to be done following specific approaches in this application. It is
something to be performed.
• Bagging of fruits
• Soil sterilization
• Light trapping of insect
• Manual weeding
• Spraying
3. Pest- refers to plants/animals that are destructive,harmful, injuries, and complete with man in this
pursuit to grow crops.
Pest categories in crop protection
a. Insect pest( Entomology)
b. Plant pathogens( plant pathology)
c. Weeds (weed science)
Definition of Terms
4. Management- refers to the intelligent section,action, and process to carry out such method or
approach through understanding some underlying principles/body of knowledge in relation to
prevention/control of pest.
Examples:
1. Ecologic principles of the environment/nature
* Role of climate, weather, temperature, rainfall etc.
2. Pest biology, behavior, method of transmission, distribution,etc
3. Host of pest as a factor
* Level of tolerance, resistance and susceptibility
4. Crop protection principles
a. Principle of protection
b. Principles of exclusion
c. Principles of eradication
A. The needs for crop protection
1. The ultimate goal of crop protection
a. Quantitative harvest- high amount of harvest in kilograms for more income.
b. Qualitative harvest- high quality of harvest for more income
c. Manage pest- not to reach high population/high crop damage

2. Needs for crop protection

A. World population is growing steadily
a. The greatest challenge is how to feed the people
b. Arable land declining
c. Global demand for food will soon outstrip food supply
B. Crop losses
a. Crop losses on standing crops
b. Crop losses on harvesting
c. Crop losses on post harvest

C. Modern Agriculture- aggravate pest infestation

Attributes of MA
a. Use of pesticides and fertilizer
b. Increase hectare
c. Monocropping
d. Intensive cropping
e. Excessive use of pesticides
f. Use of susceptible HYV’s
B. Meaning of Pest Management
1. The use of all available techniques that are evaluated and
consolidated into a unified program to manage pest population so that
economic damage is avoided

2. The intelligent selection and use of pest control actions that

will ensure favorable economic, ecological and social consequences.
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Some important issues to consider in pest management
1. Cost of pest management
2. Consequence/impact of ecology
• Environment protection
• Ecological principles
3. Social consequences
• Consumers safety(pesticide free products,free from microbial
contamination, NO pesticide residues
• Human welfare
• Clean technology
• Culturally appropriate
C. The Goals of Pest Management
1. Profit- entails the cost of PM considering the following:
•Cost of control/prevention
•Cost of technology
•Added cost(labor, pesticides,equipments, etc)
2. Maintains environment integrity
• Environmentally friendly
• Environmentally sustainable
• Conservation/protection of natural enemies
3. Social acceptance
• Man’s health
• Man’s culture
• Mans’s capability( economic capacity/technology)
D. Relationship of PM to other technologies
1. PM to Integrated Crop Management (ICM)

Meaning of ICM
- Farming methods that balances the requirements of running a profitable
business with responsible and sensitive to the environment.

- Combines the best modern technology with basic principles of ecology

and farming practice.
Components of ICM
1. Soil nutrient managements
2. Water management Involves all the horticultural
3. Cultural management and agronomic practices to
4. Waste pollution management grow the crop
5. Pest management

Note: Pest management is just a segment of ICM, hence; ICM is broader in scope
Goals of ICM
1. Profit
2. Safeguard of the environment
3. Safe and affordable food
4. Consumer acceptance
Definition of Terms
2. PM to Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Meaning of IPM
- Is the best mix of pest control tactics for a local pest problem as measured by
parameters of yield, profit, safety and stability, IPM includes the management of pest using
combinations with the following objectives:
1. To maximize net profit with best input cost
2. To preserve the environment
3. To avoid pesticides poisoning
4. To attain fewer pest outbreak
3. Why IPM?
- The birth of the concept on IPM comes up because on the total reliance to pesticides as
the main stay of pest control on the foremost method either as preventive or curative sprays.
Such sole dependence to pesticides leads to the following undesirable side effects:
1. Pest resistance to pesticides due to the
• Continuous usage of pesticide
•Same pesticides
• overdosing/ under dosing
• Cocktail dilution/application

Note: Development of pest resistance to pesticides is governed by the magnitude of exposure

to the kind of pesticide.
Definition of Terms
2. Pest resurgence
- it is an increase in population of major or Key pest due to their ability to adopt, utilize,
degrade pesticides that have been continuously and indiscriminately used for sometimes

Key pest - An insect, mite, disease, nematode or weed that frequently results in unacceptable
damage and thus typically requires a control action. e.g. Cotton bollworm, Diamond backmoth

Major pest - Economic damage can be prevented by timely and repeated sprays e.g. Cotton
jassid, Rice stem borer

Minor pest - Can be controlled by spraying e.g. Cotton stainers, Rice hispa, Ash weevils
Definition of Terms
Secondary pest- replacement pest

Potential pests - they are not pests at present

- if environment changed may cause economic
loss
Important IPM Principles and Requisites

1. Pest can never be eliminated but can be managed at an acceptable level

2. Pest management requires knowledge and judgement on the following:
a. Know the crop b. Know the pest c. Know the agro
ecosystem
3. Biology and ecology of pest
4. Utilize appropriate crop production strategies
5. Establish economic threshold
6. Revise monitoring and forecasting systems
 HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF
PEST MANAGEMENT
PRE-HISTORIC TIMES- THE ERA OF
IGNORANCE, MYSTICISM AND SUPERSTITION
250,000 BC
a. Human pests only limited ti lice, mites, fleas and mosquitoes that caused
human discomfort.
b. Pre-historic pest control method are limited to picking, slapping and
squashing which are not scientific at all.

8,000 BC
Beginning of Agriculture

2,500 BC
The sumerians were using Sulphur compounds to control insect and mites
PRE-HISTORIC TIMES- THE ERA OF
IGNORANCE, MYSTICISM AND SUPERSTITION
1,200 BC
The Chinese were using plant-derived pesticides for seed treatments and
fumigation.

950 BC
First description of cultural control- burning for locust control

250 BC
Rust and mildews diseases of plants in biblical writings

450 BC
PRE-HISTORIC TIMES- THE ERA OF
IGNORANCE, MYSTICISM AND SUPERSTITION
80 AD
Romans traditionally perform rites Robigalia to appease the
Goddess Robigo for wheat rust disease

300 AD
First record of biological control in china using ants on citurs
orchard
THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD (16-17 th

CENTURY)
- Era of significant and birth of science
- Agri Revolution in Europe
- Enrichment of subsistence agriculture
- Introduction of new crops and farming methods
- Replacement of new native crops
- Irish famine (potato blight)
(Phytophthora infestans) Fungus
GOLDEN AGE OF BIOLOGY( 1850-1900
AD/CENTURY)
- Study of plant disease and their control

- 1882- (discovery of Bordeaux mixture fungicide in France)

- 1890 (introduction of Lead arsenate as insect control)

- 1896 (Introduction of iron sulphate- the first selected

herbicide)
THE EARLY 20 CENTURY th

- 1930’s- ( Introduction of synthetic organics for plant pathogens

- 1939- (Discovery of DDT insecticide Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane)

- 1940’s- ( Germany organo phosphate development)

- (Acceleration of Breeding)

- 1944- 2,4D herbicide discovery- the first hormone based herbicide

- 1946- First record insect’s resistance to DDT (house fly in Sweden)

THE MID OF 20 CENTURY th

- 1950’s – Wide spread development of resistance and side effects of DDT

- 1959- Introduction of IPM concept and EIL and ETL concept
- 1960- Insects pheromone isolated, identified and synthesized on gypsy moth on
apples
- 1962- Rachel Carson’s silent spring
- 1972– (Banning of DDT in the US)
- - Epidemic of southern Blight of corn in the US due to corn hybrid breeding
SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP
PROTECTION( SMITH 1969)
The sequential development of crop protection is based on five phases or patterns which
explains that pest problem is aggravated by the manners of crops technologies employed
over the year by man.

1. Subsistence Phase- this is characterized by the ff:

a. Subsistence agriculture
b. Use of traditional crop varieties
c. Farm products are locally consumed/bartered
d. Used minimal/zero farm inputs(fertilizer/pesticides)
e. No serious pest outbreak
f. Natural control is the only crop protection method used
SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP
PROTECTION( SMITH 1969)
2. Exploitation Phase
a. Increase farm hectarage
b. New varieties introduced
c. Intensive monoculture
d. New markets for commercial marketing channels
e. Pest problem become serious
f. Increase in yield and profit
SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP
PROTECTION( SMITH 1969)
3. Crisis Phase
a. Pest problem aggravate and more serious outbreak
b. Increased pesticide usage/concentration
c. Sole independence on pesticide
d. Pesticide cocktailing
e. Increased farm inputs/cost of production
f. Reduction of profits
SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP
PROTECTION( SMITH 1969)
4. Disaster Phase
a. The crop production has no longer profitable due to
pest outbreak
b. Collapsed of crop protection measures
c. Epidemics of pest
d. Pesticides become ineffective
e. Serious pest outbreak
f. Pesticide residue problem
SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP
PROTECTION( SMITH 1969)
5. Integrated Control Phase
a. Use of compatible combination measures with IPM
concept
b. Importation of natural enemies
c. Use of resistance/tolerant crop varieties
d. No more sole dependence on pesticides
e. The crop is profitable grown with low pest population
and crop damage
COURSE INTRODUCTION
COURSE INTRODUCTION
THE CONCEPT OF PEST
Pest
- are species whose existence conflicts with people's profit,
convenience or welfare; Such organisms include principally certain
insects, nematodes, bacteria, fungi, weeds, birds, rodents, or any
terrestrial or aquatic plant or animal life.

- are living organisms causing economic harm to us and our resources

(crops, animals, buildings, clothing and other properties)
A. Pest Classification

i. based on origin
Exotic pest — are those pests that are introduced from outside
the locality

Endemic pest — are those pests that are local in origin.

A. Pest Classification

ii. based on abundance or number

•a. Key or major pest — are usually introduced (exotic pest)
- Are always present in the field every season at a very high
population
- Are always causing economic damage
- Usually do not have biological control agents because their natural
enemies are left in their original place of origin.
- Examples: rice stemborers, corn borer, green leafhopper, diamond
back moth, mango hopper etc.
A. Pest Classification

b. Potential or minor pest — are usually endemic

species that are always found in the field at a low
population
- They do not cause economic damage because their
populations are being controlled by many natural
enemies
- Examples: rice whorl maggot, rice skippers
A. Pest Classification

c. Occasional pest — are usually strong fliers that cam

migrate from one place to another
- They came usually after a long drought
- Examples: armyworms and cutworms, locusts
A. Pest Classification

*Storage pests: classification according to number

Major insect pest — are found frequently in abundance
or in great number
•Examples: rice weevils, flour beetle

Minor insect pest — are usually encountered in small

number
A. Pest Classification

iii. based on feeding habit

1. Phytophagous insect (herbivores) — feeding on living plants
• Leaf feeders — Orthopterans, most larvae of Lepidoptera
• Leaf miners — Agromyzid flies
• Stem and root borers — Pyralid larvae and cerambycid larvae

• Root feeders — root grubs, mole cricket Gall makers — gall wasps
• Sap feeders — leafhoppers, planthoppers, bugs, aphids
A. Pest Classification

2. Saprophagous — feeding on dead organic matter

General scavenger — cockroaches
Dung feeders — scarabaeid beetles

3. Mycetophagous — feeding on fungus

Fungus feeder — mycetophagid beetles
A. Pest Classification
4. Zoophagous (carnivorous) — feeding on living plants

Parasites — lives on other animals

A. Living on warm-blooded animal — sucking lice

B. Living on other insects — Hymenopterous wasps of family
ichneumonidae, braconidae, etc.
C. Blood feeders — mosquitoes

Predators — prey on other insects — ladybird beetle, water striders

B. Insect Control Management

i. Nature of insect damage

1. Direct damage — occurs when the insect pest causes visible
harm to the host organism.
A. Foliage feeders
B. Sap feeders
C. Stem borers/feeders
D. Root feeders
E. Stalk feeders
F. Fruit feeders
B. Insect Control Management

2. Indirect damage — transmit plant, animal and human diseases

Economic Injury Level (EIL) — is defined as the lowest number of
insect pest that will cause economic damage
Economic Damage — occur when the value of damage is greater than
the cost of controlling the pests.
Economic Threshold Level (ETL) — also called action threshold which
indicate the number of insect pest (density or intensity) that should
trigger management activity' to prevent from reaching the EIL.
B. Insect Control Management

ii. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

— a strategy in combating pest using integration of

many components: Varietal Resistance, Good
Cultural and Sanitation Practices; Use of Biocon,
Synchronous Planting, and Cropping Patterns, Crop
Rotation, Use of Trap Crops, Attractants, Repellants
and Insecticides.
ii. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

1. Varietal resistance — crops have been bred for

resistance to pests ; e.g. 15 rice varieties have
increased level of resistant to borers, 9 varieties are
resistant to BPH

2. Sound cultural practices - sanitation or removal of

weeds, synchronous planting and crop rotation
ii. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

3. Biocon — use of natural parasites,

predators and parasites against pest

e.g. Trichogrammaevanescens—
parasitizes eggs of corn borer
T. chilonis- against cotton bollworm
T. japonicum- against rice stem borers
ii. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

3. Biocon
Bacillus thuringiensis- against corn borers,
rice stem borer and DBM of cabbage

Diadegma semiclausum- against DBM in

cabbage

Epidinocarsis manihoti- controls cassava

mealy bugs
ii. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

3. Biocon
Bacillus thuringiensis- against corn borers,
rice stem borer and DBM of cabbage

Diadegma semiclausum- against DBM in

cabbage

Epidinocarsis manihoti- controls cassava

mealy bugs
ii. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

4. Use of trap crops and intercropping- e.g cabbage and

tomato; white potato and corn

5. Use of light traps, attractants( female sex pheromones)

against adult moths and potato weevil

6. Use of vertebrate biological agents- ducks against snail and

weeds
KINDS OF INSECTICIDE

a. Contact insecticides — penetrates exoskeletons of

insects; pose dangers to non-target and beneficial
organisms (spiders)

b. Systemic insecticides — be applied on plants or to

the soil in the presence of water in the soil
Classification of insecticides based on structure:
1. Organochlorines or chlorinated hydrocarbons — DDT, dieldrin,
endrin, endosulfan, heptachlor, chlordane and lindane

DDT — most widely used insecticide ever manufactured;

discovered by Paul Mueller of Geigy Chemical Company in
Switzerland. It was banned in 1972 in the USA and other countries.
Classification of insecticides based on structure:
2. Organophosphates — These are esters of phosphoric or
phosphorochloic acid which are nerve poisons — e.g. phosdrin,
dimethoate, malathion, parathion. These chemicals are non-persistent in
the environment and do not bioaccumulate.

3. Carbamates- similar to the organophosphate and are widely used in

agriculture, forestry, health, veterinary practice and in the homes- e.g.
carbofuran (Furadan), aldicarb, carbaryl and pirimicarb
Classification of insecticides based on structure:
4. Pyrethroids- has a synthetic structure resembling natural pyrethrins
derived from pyrethrum flowers which are relatively safe to the spray
operators- eg. Permethrin, cypermethrin and bioremethrin

5. Insect growth regulators- juvenile hormones which was first

elucidated in 1967 which kills insect by inhibiting the molting process
or interfering with chitin synthesis. –e.g. Methoprene, fenoxycarb,
benzylphenyureas, diflubenzuron and chlorfluazuron.
Classification of insecticides based on structure:
6. New classes of chemicals- for control of arthropods- avermectins,
chloronicotinyls, pyrroles, phenypyrazoles and spinosyns.

7. Botanical insecticides- naturally existing compounds in plants

which have insecticidal properties. Commercial products are extracted
from plant sources.
Pyrethrum- from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium flower heads
Rotenone- Derris elliptica or tubli
Nicotine- Nicotiana tabacum
Azadirachtin- extracted from Azadirachtin