wear

• Wear is the surface damage or removal of material from one or both of

two solid surfaces in a sliding, rolling, or impact motion relative to one
another. known as "wear“
• at asperities
• with no net change in weight or volume.
• Operating conditions
• Mechanical/chemical
 Zero wear: polishing process, desirable
 Measurable wear : noise or surface roughness, volume/mass reduction,
Undesirable
• Frictional junctions are broken,
• elastic displacement,
• plastic displacement,
• cutting,
• destruction of surface films and destruction of bulk material.
Mechanism of wear
• Abrasive Wear : polishing, scouring, scratching,
grinding, gouging.
• Adhesive Wear : galling, scuffing, scoring.
• Cavitation (interaction with fluid).
• Corrosive Wear (Chemical nature).
• Erosive Wear.
• Fatigue : delamination.
• Fretting Wear.
Adhesive wear
• Adhesive wear are caused by relative motion, "direct contact" and plastic
deformation which create wear debris and material transfer from one surface to
another.
• Asperities, contact, bonding: Deformation of contacting asperities Fig.(a).
• Removal (abrasion) of protective oxide surface film.
• Chemical changes
• Residual elastic energy: Formation of adhesive junctions Fig. 3.8(b).
• Detachment of fragments: Failure of junction by pulling out large lumps and
transfer of materials
• Occur at both rough and smooth surface
• Example of Adhesive Wear: A Shaft rotating in a bushing , Chalk on board-while
writing
Archard equation

K- non dimensional wear constant depends on material pair and surface cleanness
 Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear occurs when a hard rough surface slides across a softer surface.
 Two types of wear : two body and three body
 defines it as the loss of material due to hard particles or hard protuberances that
are forced against and move along a solid surface
Two-body wear occurs when the grits or hard particles
remove material from the opposite (soft) surface.
Three-body wear occurs when the particles are not constrained
and are free to roll and slide down a surface.
Plastic deformation modes: Ploughing, wedge formation, cutting

Erosive Wear: Impact of particles against a solid surface is known as erosive wear.
Cavitation wear: Localized impact of fluid against a surface during the collapse of
bubbles is known as cavitation wear
Ex: scratching, scoring or gouging,
Abrasive wear
Problem-1: The flat face of a brass annulus having an outside diameter of 20 mm
and an inside diameter of 10 mm is placed on a flat carbon steel plate under a
normal load of 10 N and rotates about its axis at 100 rpm for 100 h. As a result of
wear during the test, the mass losses of the brass and steel are 20 mg and1mg,
respectively. Calculate the wear coefficients and wear depths for the bronze and the
steel. (Hardness of steel = 2.5 GPa, density of steel= 8.5 Mg/m 3 , hardness of
brass=0.8 GPa, and density of brass=7.5 Mg/m3 .)
 CORROSIVE WEAR
 Sliding occurs in corrosive environment.
 Chemical reaction + Mechanical action = Corrosive wear.
 Chemical reagent, reactive lubricant or even air.
 Stages of corrosive wear :
• Sliding surfaces chemically interact with environment (humid/industrial
vapor/acid)
• A reaction product (like oxide, chlorides, copper sulphide)
• Oxide formation-stress-increase film thickness-blistering(stress-strength of
adhesive bond)-cracking(tension).
• Wearing away of reaction product film.
 Critical film thickness: metal/oxide where
 Chemical corrosion: enhance high temperature, high humidity
 Electro chemical corrosion: Galvanic action.
 Fatigue Wear
• Contacts between asperities with very high local stress are repeated a large
number of times during sliding or rolling; with or without lubrication.
• High plastic deformation causes crack initiation, crack growth, and
fracture.
• Pitting: leave large pits.
 Fatigue Wear during Rolling
• Application of normal load that induce stresses at contact points.
• Growth of plastic deformation per cycle.
• Subsurface crack nucleation.
• Expansion of crack due to reversal of stress.
• Extension of crack to the surface due to traction force.
• Generation of wear particles.
 Fatigue Wear during Slidingg
 Fretting Wear
 Fretting is the repeated cyclical rubbing between two surfaces, which is
known as fretting, over a period of time which will remove material from
one or both surfaces in contact.
 Fretting occurs wherever short or low amplitude 1 to 300 μm reciprocating
sliding between contacting surfaces is sustained for a large number of
cycles.
 The fretting wear rate is directly proportional to the normal load for a
given slip amplitude.
 Low frequencies effect low wear rate
 High frequencies leads to increased fatigue damage and increased
corrosion due to rise in temperature.
 Ex: press fit parts, rivet / bolt joints, strands of wire ropes, rolling element
bearings)
 DELAMINATION WEAR
A wear process where a material loss from the surface by forces of another
surface acting on it in a sliding motion in the form of thin sheets.
Mechanisms of delamination wear

• Plastic deformation of the surface

• Cracks are nucleated below the

surface

• Crack propagation from these

nucleated cracks and joining with

neigh bouring one

• After separation from the surface,

laminates form wear debris

 WEAR DEBRIS ANALSIS
• widely applied technology in machinery health monitoring techniques
• Catastrophic component failure ….condition-based maintenance.
• Method of collection: filtration, centrifuging, magnetically
• size, shape, structural, and chemical details… accurate analysis.. actual wear
mechanism based on which suitable corrective measures can be taken well in
advance.
• Wear Debris: plate-shaped - dry and lubricated interfaces
• Ribbon-shaped - plastic deformation
• Spherical Particles - transferred fragment in adhesive wear and brittle fracture
• Various Techniques:
• optical microscopy,
• scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
• Transmission and scanning transmission electron microscopy (TEM/STEM),
• energy dispersive and wave length dispersive spectroscopy(EDS and WDS),
• X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS),
• X-ray and electron diffraction.
 Wear Test
 To study the sliding, rolling and impact on surfaces and
process of wear.
 To simulate the particles situations to generate the data on
wear rate and coefficient of friction.
 Test results are very essential to have close control and
monitoring of all the variables which may influence wear.
Wear Testing Methods
 geometry and arrangement
 Change of geometry and arrangement
 adhesive wear, abrasive wear, 2-body,3-body wear
 Jet impingement method, recirculating loop method,
centrifugal accelerator method, whirling arm ring method.
Abrasion test
Rolling contact test
Erosive Wear Test
 CASE STUDY ON WEAR
Aim: The aim of the study is to evaluate the wear performance of
the untreated and plasma nitrided (AISI 316) stainless steel .
Location: The University of Birmingham, UK
Wear test and method:
 Equipment: pin-on-disc tribometer
 Sample: untreated and plasma nitride AISI 316
 Contact Load: 10N
 Condition: in open air and without lubrication.
Wear measurement:
 Duration: 500 meters
 Measured: stylus profilometer ---wear track profiles
• Report of the results
• Fig. a) shows the volume loss for the untreated and PN treated 316 steel
samples for sliding distance in a range from 50 to 5000 meters.
Fig. b) shows the wear rates after sliding for 500 and 800 meters. Since
the difference in wear between the nitrided and untreated samples is very
big (two orders of magnitude), the vertical axis is in logarithm scale.
 Conclusion
 plasma nitriding reduced the wear rate of the stainless steel by
more than 200 times under the testing conditions.
 Examination of the wear track by visual examination, SEM
 confirmed that wear of untreated 316 steel was dominated by
abrasive wear.
 plasma nitrided 316 steel was by oxidation wear.
 This study has demonstrated that surface engineering is an
effective way to improve wear resistance of materials. The
various surface engineering techniques will be introduced
elsewhere.
Inadequacies of Bowden and tabors simple adhesion theory
 the friction coefficient in this model does not depend only on the
properties of the softer material
 Under normal atmospheric conditions the actual values of friction
coefficient for metal pairs are found normally in the order of 0.5
rather than 0.2
 Almost all metals strain harden to some extent and increase the
value of ‘S’ due to work hardening tend to increase .
Criticisms of Bowden And Tabors Theory of Friction
 µ is not always 0.2 when similar metal slide over each other
 No normal component of friction is detected.
 Formation of loose wear particles not explained…….single
pass
 The area of contact is always proportional to the initial plastic
strain.
Modified adhesion theory (junction growth)
 Considering the combined effect of normal and shear
stress.(unlike earlier case)
 Normal load determined the real area of contact and shear
over this tangential load is needed.
 For material remain at the point of yielding the normal
stress on element must reduce to some value p1.
 The normal load remains constant then the area of contact
must grow this phenomenon is known as junction growth.
 For Tresca’s criterion =………….1
 For von mises yield criteria =…….2
 use p1 and s then equation 1Become =
 From Tresca yield criteria =…Then
=
 Deformation Theory(Ploughing)
• Where adhesion term is small
• Hard particles penetrate and plough in to soft material and
produce grooves by plastic flow when shear strength is
increased.
• Also a result of impacted and entrapped wear particles
• Inter locking due to rough surface contact results in
Ploughing
• Ploughing not only incrased friction and also wear
• The coefficient of friction is calculated using model rigid
asperities 1) conical 2)spherical 3)upright cylindrical
4)Transverse cylindrical
• ……..(1)
• F……..(2)
• =
 How To Reduce Ploughing
• By reducing surface roughness
• Selecting a ,material of more or less or same hardness
• By removing wear particles from the interface
Friction of metals
Coefficient of friction a particular material depends on
• Mating material
• Surface roughness
• Operating conditions
• Surfaces cleaned in high vacuum observed strong adhesion…2
to 10 or even more.
• Strong metallic bonds…metal gets transferred from one to
other
• With no interfacial contaminations the extent of junction
growth is limited. Ex gold ..no oxide film forms….high
frictional value.
• Most metals oxidize in the air…film of 1 to 10 mm thick
within few minutes of exposure.
• Theses films play very crucial role in friction characteristic…
fig
• At low normal loads the oxide films separate the two metals and
coefficient of friction is low…oxide has low shear strength and
its low ductility limits junction growth.
• At higher loads film deform and metallic contact occurs leading
to high coefficient of friction
• Soft metals like tin indium at light loads metallic contact
occurs….friction is high
• Chromium has thin and strong oxide film ..no metallic contact
occurs….low constant friction coefficient.
• Coefficient of friction is lower in alloys than pure elements
• Lead based white metals , brass, bronze and grey cast
iron…..low coefficient of friction…phases form film of low
shear strength.
• Alloys grey cat iron low shear strength is formed by the
graphite constituent. for lead based alloy a thin film of lead is
formed during sliding. ….used in bearing and seal material
Affected by no of parameters
Sliding velocity
Contact pressure….results in molten metal layer
at asperities ref. fig
Temperature
Relative humidity
Gaseous environment
Phase transformation
Ex…cobalt….417 degree.
 Friction Of Non Metallic Materials
 Ceramics
• Low density with excellent mechanical properties…strength
stiffness hardness
• Ceramics used for high loads high speed high temperature corrosive
environments
• Ceramics include alumina , zirconia, silicon nitride, silicon
carbide(sic).
• Ceramics different from metals due to different nature of inter
atomic forces or ionic bonding. because of these nature of bonding
ceramics show low plastic flow at room temperature and
correspondingly less ductility than metals.
• More adhesive forces and low area of contact …relatively low
frction
• In clean surfaces µ do not reach high value as observed in metals in
high vaccum.
• µ of ceramics decreases with an increase in fracture toughness
• Cc
The occurrence of fracture leads to higher friction as it provides
mechanism for the dissipation of energy at the sliding contact.
The interface temperature increases and this enhances the
tribological film formation on sliding surfaces leading to a decreases
in friction
 Polymers
• Plastics and elastomers
• Polymers the µ is 0.15 to 0.6 in general. With exception PTFE.
• Polymers exhibit low friction compare to metals and ceramics…1/10 th
of elastic modulus.
• Polymers include.PTFE, HDPE, PPS, Pluamide (nylon) polymide, acetal
etc…self lubricating solids
• Elastomers..natural and synthetic rubber styerene butadiene rubber
(SBR) silicon rubber butadiene acrylonitrile rubber.
• Carbon, graphite, glass fillers in polymer composites.
• When plastics slide against hard metal surfaces transfer film of plastic is
formed in the mating surface and this governs the friction amd wear
behavior
• Initialy the µ is not low particularly 0.2 to 0.3 and transfer film thickness
in micrometers.. as sliding continues the µ is drops to much lower value.
• The transfer film becomes much thinner and continues molecular chains
strongly oriented parallel to the sliding direction fig shows behavior for
HDPE.
• The main surfaces of friction adhesion deformation and elastic
hysteresis. Accordind to analysis of adhesion the µ affected by
surface roughness.
Thank you