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Lecture Oct-27-11 Chapter 18
Lecture Oct-27-11 Chapter 18
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Direct Communication
Exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent cells across gap junctions Occurs between two cells of same type Highly specialized and relatively rare
Paracrine Communication
Uses chemical signals to transfer information from cell to cell within single tissue Most common form of intercellular communication
Endocrine Communication
Endocrine cells release chemicals (hormones) into bloodstream Alters metabolic activities of many tissues and organs simultaneously
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Regulates long-term processes Growth Development Reproduction Uses chemical messengers to relay information and instructions between cells Are specific cells that possess receptors needed to bind and read hormonal messages Stimulate synthesis of enzymes or structural proteins Increase or decrease rate of synthesis Turn existing enzyme or membrane channel on or off
Target Cells
Hormones
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Hormones
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Remain functional for less than 1 hour Diffuse out of bloodstream: bind to receptors on target cells Are broken down and absorbed: by cells of liver or kidney Are broken down by enzymes: in plasma or interstitial fluids
Remain in circulation much longer Enter bloodstream More than 99% become attached to special transport proteins Bloodstream contains substantial reserve of bound hormones
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Hormone Receptor
Is a protein molecule to which a particular molecule binds strongly Responds to several different hormones Different tissues have different combinations of receptors Presence or absence of specific receptor determines hormonal sensitivity
Catecholamines and peptide hormones Are not lipid soluble Unable to penetrate plasma membrane Bind to receptor proteins at outer surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors)
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Bind to receptors in plasma membrane Cannot have direct effect on activities inside target cell Use intracellular intermediary to exert effects First messenger: leads to second messenger may act as enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor results in change in rates of metabolic reactions
Important Second Messengers Cyclic-AMP (cAMP) : Derivative of ATP Cyclic-GMP (cGMP) : Derivative of GTP Calcium ions :
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The Process of Amplification Is the binding of a small number of hormone molecules to membrane receptors Leads to thousands of second messengers in cell Magnifies effect of hormone on target cell
Down-regulation
Presence of a hormone triggers decrease in number of hormone receptors When levels of particular hormone are high, cells become less sensitive Absence of a hormone triggers increase in number of hormone receptors When levels of particular hormone are low, cells become more sensitive
Up-regulation
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1) G Protein
Enzyme complex coupled to membrane receptor Involved in link between first messenger and second messenger Binds GTP Activated when hormone binds to receptor at membrane surface and changes concentration of second messenger cyclic-AMP (cAMP) within cell: increased cAMP level accelerates metabolic activity within cell
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Activated G proteins trigger opening of calcium ion channels in membrane release of calcium ions from intracellular stores G protein activates enzyme phospholipase C (PLC) Enzyme triggers receptor cascade: production of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) from membrane phospholipids
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Alter rate of DNA transcription in nucleus Change patterns of protein synthesis Directly affect metabolic activity and structure of target cell Includes steroids and thyroid hormones
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Alter rate of DNA transcription in nucleus Change patterns of protein synthesis Directly affect metabolic activity and structure of target cell Includes steroids and thyroid hormones
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Endocrine Reflexes
Endocrine Reflexes
Functional counterparts of neural reflexes In most cases, controlled by negative feedback mechanisms Stimulus triggers production of hormone whose effects reduce intensity of the stimulus
Endocrine reflexes can be triggered by 1) Humoral stimuli Changes in composition of extracellular fluid 2) Hormonal stimuli Arrival or removal of specific hormone 3) Neural stimuli Arrival of neurotransmitters at neuroglandular junctions
Endocrine Reflexes
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Involves only one hormone Controls hormone secretion by the heart, pancreas, parathyroid gland, and digestive tract Involves One or more intermediary steps Two or more hormones The hypothalamus Pathways include both neural and endocrine components
Neuroendocrine Reflexes
Complex Commands
Issued by changing Amount of hormone secreted Pattern of hormone release: hypothalamic and pituitary hormones released in sudden bursts frequency changes response of target cells
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Endocrine Reflexes
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Pituitary Gland
Also called hypophysis
Lies within sella turcica Diaphragma sellae A dural sheet that locks pituitary in position Isolates it from cranial cavity
Hangs inferior to hypothalamus Connected by infundibulum
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Pituitary Gland
Median Eminence
Swelling near attachment of infundibulum Where hypothalamic neurons release regulatory factors Into interstitial fluids Through fenestrated capillaries
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Pituitary Gland
Portal Vessels
Blood vessels link two capillary networks Entire complex is portal system Ensures that regulatory factors reach intended target cells before entering general circulation
Figure 187 The Hypophyseal Portal System and the Blood Supply to the Pituitary Gland.
Bio 2870 A & P
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Pituitary Gland
Hormones turn on endocrine glands or support other organs Can be subdivided into three regions:
1. 2. 3.
Contains unmyelinated axons of hypothalamic neurons Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei manufacture
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Pituitary Gland
Two Classes of Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormones
Releasing hormones (RH) Stimulate synthesis and secretion of one or more hormones at anterior lobe Inhibiting hormones (IH) Prevent synthesis and secretion of hormones from the anterior lobe Rate of secretion is controlled by negative feedback
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Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland
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Pituitary Gland
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Pituitary Gland
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Lies anterior to thyroid cartilage of larynx Consists of two lobes connected by narrow isthmus
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Thyroid follicles Hollow spheres lined by cuboidal epithelium Cells surround follicle cavity that contains viscous colloid Surrounded by network of capillaries that deliver nutrients and regulatory hormones accept secretory products and metabolic wastes
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Synthesized by follicle cells Secreted into colloid of thyroid follicles Molecules contain the amino acid tyrosine Also called tetraiodothyronine Contains four iodide ions Contains three iodide ions
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
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Absence causes thyroid follicles to become inactive Neither synthesis nor secretion occurs Binds to membrane receptors Activates key enzymes in thyroid hormone production
Thyroid Hormones
Enter target cells by transport system Affect most cells in body Bind to receptors in Cytoplasm Surfaces of mitochondria Nucleus In children, essential to normal development of Skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems
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Calorigenic Effect
Cell consumes more energy resulting in increased heat generation Is responsible for strong, immediate, and short-lived increase in rate of cellular metabolism
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Parathyroid Glands
Embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Produced by chief cells 2+ In response to low concentrations of Ca
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Parathyroid Glands
It stimulates osteoclasts
Accelerates mineral turnover and releases Ca2+ from bone
2)
It inhibits osteoblasts
Reduces rate of calcium deposition in bone
3)
4)
It enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at kidneys, reducing urinary loss It stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol at kidneys
Effects complement or enhance PTH Enhances Ca2+, PO43- absorption by digestive tract
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6-8
BALANCE
C. i.
VITAMIN D
FUNCTIONS:
i.
Calcium Resorption In The Intestines ii. Increases Osteoclasts iii. Maintains Proper Function Of PTH
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Calcium Homeostasis
The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve
Bones store calcium and other minerals Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body
Homeostasis is maintained By calcitonin and parathyroid hormone Which control storage, absorption, and excretion
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Calcitonin
Secreted by C cells (parafollicular cells) in thyroid Decreases calcium ion levels by
Inhibiting osteoclast activity Increasing calcium excretion at kidneys
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6-8
I.
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A. B.
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Parathyroid Glands
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Parathyroid Glands
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Suprarenal Glands
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Suprarenal Glands
Suprarenal Cortex
2.
3.
1)
Zona Glomerulosa
Outer region of suprarenal cortex Produces mineralocorticoids For example, aldosterone: stimulates conservation of sodium ions and elimination of potassium ions increases sensitivity of salt receptors in taste buds Secretion responds to: + drop in blood Na , blood volume, or blood pressure + rise in blood K concentration
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Suprarenal Glands
2) Zona Fasciculata
Produces glucocorticoids For example, cortisol (hydrocortisone) with corticosterone Liver converts cortisol to cortisone Secretion regulated by negative feedback Has inhibitory effect on production of Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in hypothalamus ACTH in adenohypophysis Accelerates glucose synthesis and glycogen formation Shows anti-inflammatory effects Inhibits activities of white blood cells and other components of immune system
3)
Bio 2870 A & P
Zona Reticularis
Network of endocrine cells Forms narrow band bordering each suprarenal medulla Produces androgens under stimulation by ACTH
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Suprarenal Glands
Suprarenal Medulla
One produces epinephrine (adrenaline) 75 to 80% of medullary secretions The other produces norepinephrine (noradrenaline) 20 to 25% of medullary secretions
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Suprarenal Glands
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Pineal Gland
Contains pinealocytes Synthesize hormone melatonin Functions of Melatonin Inhibiting reproductive functions Protecting against damage by free radicals Setting circadian rhythms
Figure 145 The Diencephalon and Brain Stem.
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Pancreas
Lies between Inferior border of stomach And proximal portion of small intestine
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Pancreas
Endocrine Pancreas
Consists of cells that form clusters known as pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans 1) Alpha cells produce glucagon 2) Beta cells produce insulin 3) Delta cells produce peptide hormone identical to GHIH 4) F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
Figure 1815 The Endocrine Pancreas
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Pancreas
Blood Glucose Levels 1) When levels rise Beta cells secrete insulin, stimulating transport of glucose across plasma membranes 2) When levels decline Alpha cells release glucagon, stimulating glucose release by liver
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Pancreas
Insulin
Accelerates glucose uptake Accelerates glucose utilization and enhances ATP production Stimulates glycogen formation Stimulates amino acid absorption and protein synthesis Stimulates triglyceride formation in adipose tissue
Glucagon
Stimulates breakdown of glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells Stimulates breakdown of triglycerides in adipose tissue Stimulates production of glucose in liver
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Pancreas
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2)
3) 4) 5) 6)
Bio 2870 A & P
Intestines (digestive system) Produce hormones important to coordination of digestive activities Kidneys (urinary system) : Produce the hormones calcitriol and erythropoietin Produce the enzyme renin Heart (cardiovascular system) Thymus (lymphoid system and immunity) Adipose Tissue Secretions Gonads (reproductive system)
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Hormone Interactions
Hormones Important to Growth GH Thyroid hormones Insulin PTH Calcitriol Reproductive hormones
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Hormone Interactions
Growth Hormone (GH) In children Supports muscular and skeletal development In adults Maintains normal blood glucose concentrations Mobilizes lipid reserves Thyroid Hormones If absent during fetal development or for first year Nervous system fails to develop normally Mental retardation results If T4 concentrations decline before puberty Normal skeletal development will not continue
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Hormone Interactions
Insulin Allows passage of glucose and amino acids across plasma membranes Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) and Calcitriol Promote absorption of calcium salts for deposition in bone Inadequate levels causes weak and flexible bones Reproductive Hormones Androgens in males, estrogens in females Stimulate cell growth and differentiation in target tissues Produce gender-related differences in Skeletal proportions Secondary sex characteristics
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Hormone Interactions
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Hormone Interactions
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Hormone Interactions
Diabetes Insipidus
(Polyuria)
In severe cases, fluid loss can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance and prove fatal. The condition can be treated by administration of
Hormone Interactions
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Diabetes Mellitus
Characterized by glucose levels that are high enough to impair resorption capabilities of kidneys
Glucose is secreted in urine (glycosuria) and associated with excessive urine production (polyuria)
DM can be caused due to genetic abnormalities 1) Inadequate synthesis of Insulin 2) Production of abnormal insulin 3) Production of defective receptor proteins 4) May also result from injuries, pathological conditions, immune disorders or hormonal imbalance Obesity accelerates the onset of DM
Two types: Type 1: individual do no produce insulin and require insulin injections to survive Type 2: individuals produce insulin, but their body is not able to utilize the same
Bio 2870 A & P
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Hormone Interactions
Diabetes Mellitus
Due to inadequate glucose levels stabilization, DM leads to a spectrum of chronic medical problems Tissue face chronic energy crisis and lead to break down of lipids and even proteins. Conditions is made worse with co-existing hypertension and high cholesterol Targeting any of these three can alleviate the related health issues 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Diabetic retinopathy Increased incidence of cataracts Diabetic nephropathy Diabetic neuropathy Degenerative blockage of cardiac circulation Blood flow to distal limbs is disrupted. e.g. feet may develop tissue death, ulceration, infection or loss of toes.
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Hormone Interactions
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Hormone Interactions
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Hormone Interactions
Hormone Changes
Can alter intellectual capabilities, memory, learning, and emotional states Affect behavior when endocrine glands are oversecreting or under-secreting
Aging