Lecture 2: Digital Logic

ACM 501
 Computers
• A computer is a device which can
– input and store data
– input and store instructions for how to process the data
– process the data according to the instructions
– output the results of the data processing

• Modern computers have basic commonalities

– store all data in terms of binary digits
– use simple semiconductor circuits which can basically
• add or subtract numbers
• compare two numbers
 Digital versus Analog Systems
• There are two types of mathematical quantities
– based on physical measurements
• can take on any value
– actual height of a room can be 2.045623423523... m.
– more accurate measurement may lead to more digits
– are represented by real numbers
• can change continuously with time
– temperature at some location in a physical object
– voltage at some point in a circuit
– based on counting
• can take on only certain discrete values
– number of people in the room can be 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
– more accurate counting will not give 1.235 ... people
• are represented by integers
• can change only in discrete steps
– number of people cannot change in steps of less than 1
• digital comes from digits, meaning fingers
 Analog Systems
• Directly handle the data
– representation is analogous to the quantity being represented
 Analog Systems
• Seem to be very accurate
– actually very difficult and expensive to design and build
– signals are distorted as they travel through the system
• dispersion on the line, reflections at ends
– different paths can introduce different errors
• cross-talk
– errors depend on which other circuits are being used
• external noise
– errors depend on the environment
• power supply
– errors depend on other circuits
– even general load on power supply
• temperature changes
• physical degradation of circuit elements
– real life measurements are not infinitely precise anyway
 Digital Systems
• Based on digital representation of data
– data can only take on certain specific values
– changes in data values are in steps

• Real data may be analog

– if we are only interested in limited accuracy
• a variable can be given only to one place after the decimal
– 0.00 to 0.05 can be approximated as 0.0
– 0.05 to 0.15 can be approximated as 0.1
– 0.15 to 0.25 can then be treated as 0.2
– ...
• Such a system would be a digital system
– more tolerant of errors due to noise or distortions
• unless error is large enough to change steps, data value is constant
– change from 0.06 to 0.12 keeps value at 0.1
 Digital Systems
• Even this scheme can be problematic
– assume
• we need to represent lengths 0 to 100 m, in steps of 0.01 m
• maximum hole size on punched card is around 10 cm
– each step would correspond to 0.001 cm.
– we must differentiate between 6.688 cm and 6.689 cm long slots

• we want to keep the voltage low to reduce power consumption

• voltage range of system is 0 - 5 volts,
– 10 divisions would need 0.5 volt intervals.
– 1000 divisions would make the interval 0.005 volts.

• For a general purpose computer

– the accuracy we need can vary widely
– simply dividing the data into steps is not enough
 Digital Systems with Binary State Elements
• To get around the problem
– fundamental elements of the system have only two states
• there is a hole at a location on the punched card, or no hole
• a relay circuit is open or closed
• a vacuum tube is on or off
• a voltage is high or low

• This separates the levels to the maximum extent feasible

– each state can have a still have range
• all holes may not be identical
• voltage 0 – 0.4 V can be low and 2.4 – 5 V can be high.

• An element has two states, so can represent only two data items
– data is represented using a combination of elements
– many representation schemes are possible
 Examples of Data Representation
• Using 10 elements to represent a decimal digit, 0 - 9
– 0 - 99 can be represented using 2 sets of 10 elements
– 0 - 999 can be represented using 3 sets of 10 elements
• remember zero requires an explicit representation
 Examples of Data Representation
• How would we represent text characters?
– we do not want to add an extra element for each character
– use more than one element of the set at a time
• punched card including characters
 Number of Elements Needed
• Each element has two states
– on or off, hole or no hole, voltage high or low
– let us call one state 0 and the other 1 for convenience
• positive logic uses high voltage as 1
• negative logic uses low voltage as 1
– Each element can be called a binary digit, or BIT

• One element can represent two characters

0
0 or 1  two possible data items
1
 Number of Elements Needed
• A two element group will have four distinct states

0 0

0 1
00, 01, 10, 11  four possible data items
1 0
0 1 2 3

1 1 A b $ d
 Number of Elements Needed
• n elements will have 2n different states
– each state can represent one character

}
n bits total

0 1 1 1 0

2 x 2 x 2 … 2 x 2 = 2n
 ASCII Character Set
• The ASCII code uses 7 bits to represent data
– can represent 128 characters
– includes some control characters which are not printed
• instruct the device to add a tab space, or begin a new line
– represents digits 0 – 9, A – Z, a – z, and special characters like !, $, @

• An eighth bit is added for parity checking

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

Parity Bit here set to 1 to ensure sum is odd

• Extended codes exist for other symbols, languages

 Data Types
• Computers handle different types of data
– numbers 1, 2, -153, 2.54
– symbols +, -, (, ), /
– alphanumeric strings DfgF9_$5
– sounds such as beeps and music files
– pictures and video
– physical data such as temperature, radiation levels

• The ASCII scheme can represent alphanumeric strings

• Representing numbers in the ASCII code is inefficient

– each digit uses 8 elements

• We will soon see how to represent numbers

• Can other analog data be digitized and represented as numbers?

 Digitization of Data
• Variables can vary continuously over space and time
– temperature distribution in a body at one instant of time
– temperature at a point in the body versus time

• We take samples at certain intervals of time and space

• How often do we need to sample the data?
– depends on the accuracy we need
 Digitization of Data
• Fourier Theorem
– a function can be treated as a superposition of simple waves
• the waves have different frequencies
• it is possible an infinite number of waves may be needed
• using fewer waves leads to inaccuracy in recreating the function
 Digitization of Data
• Nyquist-Shannon Theorem
– to fully recreate the data up to some frequency f,
• you need to sample the function at 2f
 Digitization of Data
• A picture can be divided into small regions
– each region represented, say, by the intensity of primary colors
– the smaller the divisions, the better the digitized image
– pixilation works because human eyes have finite resolution
• bitmaps are based on such an approach
• compression techniques give other file types

• We can sample the amplitude of sound waves at discrete intervals

– we are sensitive to a limited frequency range of sound waves
• 20 – 20,000 Hz, phone companies can use smaller range, up to 3000 Hz

• We can create a video from pictures at discrete time intervals

– persistence of vision creates a video from stationary pictures

• Characters can be stored as numbers using the ASCII table

• All types of data can be stored as numbers

– the binary system provides the most efficient way to store numbers
 Number Systems
• The number system we use is the decimal system
– based on 10 digits, 0 – 9

• It is a positional system
– the value of a digit depends on its position
– when we write the number 4256
• the digit 4 denotes 4000
• the 2 denotes 200
• the 5 is 50
• the digit 6 is 6 itself.
 The Roman System
• The positional system is in contrast to the Roman system
– certain numbers are assigned letter symbols
• I denotes 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500. M = 1000
– numbers without symbols are created by combining the symbols
• II = 2, XV = 15, XVI = 16
– a smaller number to the left can be subtracted from that on the right
• IV = V – I = 4, IX = X – I = 9, XC = 90
• this is done to shorten the representation
– very large numbers, greater than 4000
• can be written with a bar above the symbol to denote 1000 times
V = 5000
– there is no easy way to add, subtract, multiply or divide
• What is MDIX – XVII
• What is MCMD times XVIII
 Advantages of Positional System
• The positional system allows for ease of operations
Carry 1 1
First no. 5 3 2 9
Second no. 9 6 5 4
---------------
Sum 14 9 8 3

– similar techniques are used for other operations

– note that
• if we use a finite number of digits, say 4 and do not use negative integers
– the maximum number we can represent is 9999
– adding two numbers may lead to overflow
– multiplying numbers can also lead to overflow
• subtraction can still lead to negative numbers
• division can lead to fractional numbers
– the number may not terminate after the decimal point
– 1/3 = 0.333333 ....

• It also necessitates a symbol for zero

– so as to write 205 or 250
• in Roman system these would be CCV and CCL
 Positional Values and Digits
• For the decimal system
– each position has a value ten times the one to its right
• 4256 = 4 x 1000 + 2 x 100 + 5 x 10 +6 x 1

– using the exponentiation notation

• 4256 = 4 x 103 + 2 x 102 + 5 x 101 + 6 x 100

– we only need digits 0 to 9

• 10 = 1 x 10 + 0 = 10
 Numbers with Fractional Parts
• The general form of a decimal number
 The Binary Number System
• The number system suited to computers is the binary system

• The interpretation of positional value is based on powers of 2

– unlike base 10 in the decimal system

• The system uses only 2 digits, 0 and 1

– the number 2 is written as 1 shifted one position to the left, i.e. 10
– in the decimal system,
• digits are 0 – 9
• 10 is written as 1 shifted one position left

• A binary number can be interpreted as, for example

1011001 = 1 x 26 + 0 x 25 + 1 x 24 + 1 x 23 +0 x 22 +0 x 21 +1 x 20
= 64 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1
= 89

• The kth position after the binary point corresponds to 2-k

Converting Decimal Integers to Binary
 Converting Decimal Fractions to Binary
• To convert a decimal fraction, say 0.625 to binary

• Multiply the fraction by 2

– the whole number part is the first binary digit after the point

0.625 x 2 = 1.25, binary is 0.1 ...

• Disregard the whole number part and multiply the new fraction by 2
– the new whole number part is the second binary digit after the point

.25 x 2 = 0.50, binary is 0.10 ...

• Continue the process till fraction is zero or repeating pattern results

0.5 x 2 = 1.0

0.625 (decimal) = 0.101 (binary)

 Converting Decimal Fractions to Binary
• Sometimes a fraction may not terminate
– this may also happen after conversion to binary
• the decimal fraction 0.1
0.1 x 2 = 0.2; first binary digit after the binary point is 0
0.2 x 2 = 0.4; second binary digit after point is 0
0.4 x 2 = 0.8; third binary digit after point is 0
0.8 x 2 = 1.6; fourth binary digit after point is 1
0.6 x 2 = 1.2; fifth binary digit after pint is 1
0.2 x 2 = 0.4 ... the pattern will repeat from the second step on

0.1 (decimal) = 0.00011001100110011 ...

• We will have a truncation error due to finite digit arithmetic

 Binary Addition
• The binary system is also a positional system
– binary addition can be carried out similar to decimal addition
– for any position, there are four possibilities for the two digits

– the issue of carry over still exists

 Binary Multiplication
• Binary multiplication is simpler than decimal

1011 Multiplicand (11 dec)

x 1101 Multiplier (13 dec)
-------
1011 Partial products
0000
1011
1011
------------
10001111 Product (143 dec)

• Need double length result

 Binary Division

00001101 Quotient
Divisor 1011 10010011 Dividend
1011
001110
Partial 1011
Remainders
001111
1011
100 Remainder
 Computer Representation
• Computers use binary format to store numbers
– based on 0 and 1, like the binary states of elements
– each element represents one binary digit, called BIT
– earlier representations included binary coded decimals

• Non-negative integers can be represented directly

• Special formats are used for

– negative integers
– numbers with fractional parts
 Negative Integers
• More than one method can be used to represent negative integers

• Sign Magnitude
– the leftmost bit can be treated as the sign bit
• 0 for positive, 1 for negative
– if we are using 1 byte to represent an integer
• +18 = 00010010
• -18 = 10010010

• If we used 8 bits for non-negative integers

– we could express 28 = 256 numbers, i.e. integers 0 to 255

• Using sign and magnitude notation, half the numbers have negative sign
– we can represent +0 to +127 positive, and -0 to -127 negative integers

• Problems with sign magnitude

– need to consider both sign and magnitude in arithmetic
– subtraction needs a separate circuit
– two representations of zero, +0 = 00000000 and -0 = 10000000
 Negative Integers
• Two's complement
– take the binary form of the positive number
– invert the digits so that 0's become 1's and 1's become 0's
– add 1 to the resulting number

• To write -28
28 = 00011100 if we use 1 byte to represent integers
inverting the digits gives 11100011
adding 1 gives 11100100

-28 = 11100100

• Note that applying the procedure to 0 to get -0 gives

00000000  11111111  100000000
– the carry bit is discarded since we are using only 1 byte
so -0 = 00000000 = +0
 Negative Integers
• Another advantage of the two's complement method is
– take two numbers, say 8 and 4
8 – 4 = 8 + (-4)

– Using 2's complement notation

+8 = 00001000
-4 = -(00000100) = (11111011 + 1) = 11111100

8 + (-4) = 100000100

but we only use 1 byte, or 8 bits

so 8 + (-4) = 00000100 = 4

• To subtract a number from another

– convert the number to its two's complement form
– add
– easy to design a circuit for complementation
– no need for a separate circuit for subtraction
 Negative Integers
• Examples of two's complement for 8 bits
+3 = 00000011
+2 = 00000010
+1 = 00000001
+0 = 00000000
-1 = 11111111
-2 = 11111110
-3 = 11111101
 Negative Integers
• Unlike sign-magnitude, we have only one value of zero
– it leaves one number free, beyond 0 ... 127 and -1 ... -127

• -128 is 10000000

• If we try to negate it, -(-128), we get

10000000  01111111 + 1  10000000

• The system is asymmetric as it represents -128 to +127

 Negative Integers
• To convert between different word sizes
– Positive number pack with leading zeros
• +18 = 00010010
• +18 = 00000000 00010010
– Negative numbers pack with leading ones
• -18 = 10010010
• -18 = 11111111 10010010
– i.e. pack with MSB (sign bit)
 Negative Integers
• Another format to store negative numbers is excess 2m-1

• In this method, for 8 bits, numbers -128 to +127 are shifted by

28-1 = 27 = 128

• -128 maps to 0

• 127 maps to 255

• So numbers are stored as 0 – 255, as for 8 bit positive integers

• Same as two's complement with leftmost or sign bit reversed

 Negative Integers
• Negative numbers in four formats
 Negative Integers
• Negative numbers in four formats
 Numbers with Fractional Parts
• Numbers can be in a variety of ranges

0.000000000000015, or 150000000000000

• Cannot represent using a fixed number of places after decimal

• Use scientific notation n = f × 10e

– f is the significant or mantissa
– e is the exponent (a positive or negative integer)

• Examples
– 300.1 = 3.001 x 102
– 0.0011 = 1.1 x 10-3
– 1.5 x 10-23
– 1.5 x 1035

• This is called floating point representation

– The decimal point is floated so that the number can be expressed in this format
 Numbers with Fractional Parts
• We can do the same thing for binary numbers

• The power has to be powers of two

• n = f × 2e
– f is the significand or mantissa
– e is the exponent (a positive or negative integer) in biased format
• easier to compare exponents during operations

• Since the only digits are 0 and 1, the first digit of f is always 1
– The first digit is implicit
– Allows bits to be used for more places after the decimal
– Format cannot be used to represent 0 directly
 32-bit Floating Point Representation

• +/- .significand x 2exponent

• Special patterns for 0, infinity, NaN

• Double precision uses 64 bits.

32-bit Floating Point Representation
 Floating Point Ranges
• For a 32 bit number
– 8 bit exponent
– 2256 ≈ 1.15 x 1077 different exponent values

• Accuracy
– The effect of changing least significant bit of mantissa
– 23 bit mantissa 2-23 ≈ 1.2 x 10-7
– About 6 decimal places

• Note that if we were to use all 32 bits to express integers, we

would express 2256 different integers.

• Using 32 bits for floating point still represents the same number of
unique numbers, but the numbers are spread out over a different
range than the integers.
Floating Point Ranges
 Floating Point Arithmetic
• Significand can have underflow or overflow
– overflow occurs when you exceed the maximum positive or minimum negative limit
– Underflow occurs when the magnitude is less than the smallest possible magnitude

• Exponent can also have overflow

• Addition and subtraction are complicated

– decimal or rather binary point needs to be aligned
• exponents need to be made equal
– significands can then be added or subtracted
• in case of overflow, exponent needs to be adjusted
– result is normalized and rounded off

• Multiplication and division are somewhat easier

– exponents are dealt with separately
• multiplication involves summation of exponents
• division involves subtraction of exponents
– significands are treated as integers
– result is normalized and rounded off as needed
Double Precision
 Digital Circuits
• A computer consists of circuits made up of digital gates

• A gate is a device that

– has some inputs
– produces an output depending on the inputs

• Some basic types of gates are

– NOT
– AND
– OR

• Gates such as NAND and NOR can be derived from these

• All circuits can be designed using NAND or NOR gates

• These gates can be constructed simply using transistors

 Gates
• A NOT gate is one that inverts its input, A, to output X = A
 Gates
• An AND gate takes two inputs, A and B, and outputs AB
– output is 1 only if both inputs are 1, zero otherwise
 Gates
• An OR gate takes two inputs, A and B and outputs A+B
– output is 0 only if both inputs are 0, 1 otherwise
 Gates
• A NAND gate is a NOT gate following an AND gate
 Gates
• A NOR gate is a NOT gate following an OR gate
Construction of Gates

(a) A transistor inverter.

(b) A NAND gate.
(c) A NOR gate.
Construction of NOT Gate
Construction of AND Gate
Construction of OR Gate
Example: Majority Function
 Example: Multiplexer

Eight-input multiplexer
• parallel to serial conversion
 Example: Decoder

Three to eight decoder

• address memory chips
Example: EOR Gate
 Example: EOR Comparator

A 4-bit comparator
Example: One BIT Half Adder
Example: One BIT Full Adder
Example: One BIT ALU
Example: 8-BIT ALU
Equivalence of Circuits
 Boolean Logic
• Need formal tools for design and analysis of circuits
– to minimize the number of gates
– to minimize the layers so as to get the fastest circuit
• each gate introduces some delay

• The logic followed by circuits is called Boolean logic

• Each variable can have two values, 0 or 1

• Basic functions include AND, OR, NOT

• Expressions can be of the form

X = AB + AC + B(A+C) + C

• There is no subtraction or division

 Boolean Logic

Some identities of Boolean algebra.

 Principle of Duality
• Any expression that is true is also true if
– AND is replaced by OR, or vice-versa
– and 1 is replaced by 0, or vice-versa

– X=X+X X = X.X
– 1=X+1 0 = X.0
– X = X(X+Y) X = X +X.Y
 De Morgan's Law

Alternative symbols for some gates:

(a) NAND, (b) NOR, (c) AND, (d) OR
 Creating Expressions from Truth Tables
• Write down the inputs for any case where output is 1
– X = 0, Y = 1, Z = 0
– X = 0, Y = 1, Z = 1
– X = 1, Y = 0, Z = 1
– X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 1

• Write the product of inputs, inverting those that are zero

– using ~X for NOT X instead of the overbar, for convenience
• (~X)Y(~Z)
• (~X)YZ
• X(~Y)Z
• XYZ
• Function is sum of the product terms
• (~X)Y(~Z)+(~X)YZ + X(~Y)Z + XYZ