Review of networking concepts

Prof. Malathi Veeraraghavan University of Virginia

M. Veeraraghavan

Polytechnic University

Outline
Review of basic concepts in networking
Prerequisite: A first course on networking Communication links and switches Types of networks Shared links: media access control (MAC)

M. Veeraraghavan

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What is a communication network?

Simplest network
Single link between two pieces of end-user equipment (e.g., PC, telephone)
Types of communication links
Twisted pair Coaxial cable Optical fiber Wireless links
Radio frequencies Infra-red frequencies
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End-user equipment

End-user equipment

What is needed to send data on communication links?

Error control
Error detection:
Parity checks, Checksum, Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC)

Error correction:
ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest) FEC (Forward Error Correction)

Flow control: handles rate mismatch between sender and receiver

x-ON/x-OFF Window based flow control Rate based flow control
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Switches
Connect multiple links and route traffic from one link to another
End-user equipment End-user equipment

Switch
End-user equipment
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End-user equipment
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Why use a switch?

If there are N endpoints (end-user equipment), then how many links are needed for full mesh connectivity? How many physical links are needed if these endpoints are connected through a switch?

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Answers
Number of direct links needed to connect N nodes is N ( N 1) 2 N links since we only need one link from an endpoint to a switch

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Cost of using a switch?

Switch cost Can all endpoints have full connectivity at all times to all other endpoints?
Yes, with multiplexing on the links

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Concept of multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Allows data from different sessions to be combined at different times on to the same line How many DS0s in a T1?

Wavelength division multiplexing

Difference between FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) and WDM? Relation between frequency and wavelength
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Answers
24 DS0s in a T1 Term WDM is the same as FDM at optical frequencies see EM spectrum chart Speed of light c = f : wavelength; f: frequency

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Transceiver rate
Rate of transmission and reception at endpoints and the switch
Needs to be sufficient for full mesh connectivity all the time e.g., if DS0s used between endpoints in full mesh network, then T1s can be used in 25 endpoint network with a switch for full mesh connectivity
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Types of switches
Circuit switches: Position-based switching
Switch consults a table to determine output port on which to send data bits based on their arriving position
Position: Interface (space), time slot and/or wavelength

Space division switch: switch based on input interface Time division switching: interface + time slot Wavelength division switching: interface + wavelength No buffers

Packet switches: Label-based switching

Switch consults a table to determine output port on which to send the packet based on value of label (in packet header) Label could be changed on outgoing port or could stay the same Have buffers to hold packets
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Switch designs
See lectures on circuit switching and packet switching in Course on Data Networks Compare unfolded view of a CS with that of a PS See relevance of queueing theory to delays of calls or packets through switches

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Network of switches
Expand 1-switch network to a multi-switch network Why not build one gigantic switch?
Scalability limitations
Switch
End-user equipment End-user equipment

Switch Switch
End-user equipment
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Different types of networks

A network is defined by its switching mode and its networking mode Circuit switching vs. packet switching
Circuit-switching: switching based on position (space, time, ) of arriving bits Packet-switching: switching based on information in packet headers

Connectionless vs. connection-oriented networking:

CL: Packets routed based on address information in headers CO: Connection set up (resources reserved) prior to data transfer

Switching modes

Networking modes Connectionless IP, SS7

MPLS IP + RSVP

Connection-oriented

Packet-switching Circuit-switching
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ATM, X.25

Telephone network, SONET/SDH, WDM

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Types of data transfers

An application could consist of different types of data transfers An http session has an interactive component, but could also have a non-real-time transfer

Consuming end Live Sending end Live Interactive/ Live streaming

Stored
Recording

Stored

Stored streaming

File transfers

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Types of data transfers

An application could consist of different types of data transfers An http session has an interactive component, but could also have a non-real-time transfer

Consuming end Live Sending end Live Interactive/ Live streaming

Stored
Recording

Stored

Stored streaming

File transfers

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Matching applications & networks

Data transfers

Real-time (consumed or sent live)

Non-real-time (stored at sender and receiver ends)

Interactive (two-way) (consumed and sent live) e.g. telephony, telnet, ftp, http

Streaming (one-way) (consumed live; sent from live or stored source) e.g. radio/TV broadcasts

Short transfers (e.g. short email)

Long transfers (e.g. large image, audio, video or data)

Recording (one-way) (stored at receiver end; sent from live source); e.g. Replay

Connectionless networks

Circuit-switched networks

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Ideal networks

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Congestion control
What is it?
The purpose of a network is to allow sharing of resources This means if demand is high, there could be competition for resources from multiple users What are network resources:
Link capacity (bandwidth) Switch buffer space (only in packet switches)
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Congestion control
In CO networks
Congestion control: mostly preventive Connection Admission Control (CAC)
Check availability of bandwidth and buffer resources before admitting a connection CS CO networks: congestion will not occur once circuits are admitted PS CO networks: congestion can occur after connection is admitted if connection admission is based on statistical multiplexing
Have some supplemental reactive congestion control scheme
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Congestion control
In CL networks
Have packet switches detect congestion and send reactive messages asking sender to slow down e.g., datagram routers in SS7 networks send such messages; SRP (Spatial Reuse Protocol) switches in 802.17 MANs send such messages IP routers implement Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) procedures
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End-to-end path
Transport protocols
Ensure reliable transfer across a communication path consisting of many links (zero loss) OR ensure delay-controlled path across a communication path consisting of many links Error control and flow control Delay control (e.g., RTP) Congestion control and connection control special in TCP
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Applications
Most Internet applications are client-server based

End-user equipment Web clients

Network

Web server (Usually runs on fixed hosts)

Network Network Incoming email servers (smtp)
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Network

End-user equipment
Email-sending clients (outlook, messenger) M. Veeraraghavan

Outgoing email servers (pop, imap)

End-user equipment

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clients (outlook, messenger)

Protocol Stacks
AL TL NL DLL PHY NL
DLL DLL

AL
TCP/UDP NL
DLL DLL

IP DLL PHY Endpoint

PHY PHY

PHY PHY

Endpoint

Switch

Switch

OSI model: two more layers between AL and TL

Session layer and presentation layer

PHY: Physical; DLL: Data Link Layer; NL: Network Layer; TL: Transport Layer; AL: Application Layer
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Example protocols
AL protocols: http, smtp, ftp, PCM voice TL protocols: TCP, UDP, RTP, AAL NL protocols: IP, ATM DLL protocols: PPP, HDLC PHY protocols: DS0, DS1 Ethernet: PHY+DLL+NL
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Functions of protocol layers

PHY: sends bits across a link DLL: error control and flow control on a link NL: switching (routing), multiplexing, congestion control TL: error control and flow control on an end-to-end basis AL: Functions specific to the application
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Congestion control and connection control in TCP

IP routers did not implement ECN until recently
TCP performs congestion control Senses whether network switches (routers) are congested or not Adjusts rate accordingly Slow start and congestion avoidance

Concept of a connection at the TL

End hosts maintain state information regarding a TCP connection to track sequence numbers and ACKs Connection open (SYN) and close (FIN) procedures Contrast with a connection at the NL, where each switch maintains state about the connection
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User plane, control plane, and management plane

Management plane: consists of all the protocols needed to configure data tables for the operation of the network
For example, protocols for routing data dissemination (distributed or centralized) Other functions: performance, fault mgmt., accounting, security

Control plane:
Connection control protocols
in CO networks, this includes connection setup at each switch (connections at the network layer) in CL networks, this includes connection setup only at the endpoints (connections at the transport layer, if the TL protocol is reliable)

Call control protocols

User plane: protocols for the actual flow of data

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Routing protocol in all three types of networks - Phase 1

Dest. II Routing protocol IV Dest. III-* Next hop Routing protocol B Next hop B Host B

Host A

III Routing protocol

V

Dest. III-*

Next hop IV

III

Routing tables

Routing protocols exchange topology/loading/reachability information Routes to destinations are precomputed and stored in M. Veeraraghavan 29 Polytechnic University routing tables

Signaling protocol for NL connection setup in a PS CO network - Phase 2

Connection setup (B) Host A
a

II
b a

IN Port /Label d/L1

OUT Port/Label b/L3

Connection setup b
a

Connection setup
c d

III
d c

Host B V Connection setup

IN Port /Label a/L1

OUT Port/Label c/L2

IV

IN Port /Label a/L2

OUT Port/Label c/L1 Virtual circuit

Connection setup consists of each switch on the path

Route lookup for next hop node to reach destination CAC (Connection Admission Control) for buffer and BW Writing the input/output label mapping tables and programming the scheduler
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Signaling protocol for NL connection setup in a CS CO network - Phase 2

Connection setup (B) Host A
a

II
b a

IN OUT Port /Timeslot Port/Timeslot d/2 b/1

Connection setup b
a

Connection setup
c d

III
d c

Host B V Connection setup

IV

IN OUT Port /Timeslot Port/Timeslot a/1 c/2

IN OUT Port /Timeslot Port/Timeslot a/2 c/2

Circuit

Connection setup consists of each switch on the path

Route lookup for next hop node to reach destination CAC (Connection Admission Control) for BW (note: no buffers) M. VeeraraghavanWriting the port/timeslot/ mapping table 31 Polytechnic University

TL connection setup in a CL PS network - Phase 2

Notion of transport layer connections
Exchange initial sequence numbers end-to-end to allow for ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest) based error correction, i.e., retransmissions in case of errors
Dest. II III SYN ACK IV Dest. B
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Next hop B Host B

Host A

SYN V

Dest. B

Next hop II

Next hop III

Routing tables
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User-plane packet forwarding in a PS CO network - Phase 3

L1
b a

II
a

L3

Host A IN Port /Label a/L1

L1
c a b c

III
d d c

Host B V

OUT Port/Label c/L2 L2

IV

Labels are VPI/VCIs in ATM Labels are translated from link-to-link

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User-plane actions in a circuit-switched network - Phase 3

II 1 Host A
a

2
b a

1 III
d c b

2 Host B

1
c a b c

IV

IN OUT Port /Timeslot Port/Timeslot a/1 c/2

Bits arriving at switch I on time slot 1 on port a are switched to time slot 2 of port c
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User-plane packet forwarding in a CL PS network - Phase 3

II
b a

B III
d c b

Host A

B
c a b c

Host B V

B
B

IV

Packet headers carry destination host address (unchanged as it passes hop by hop) Each CL packet switch does a route lookup to determine the outgoing port/next hop node
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Addressing
Where are endpoint addresses used:
In CL PS networks, endpoint addresses are carried in packet headers In CO networks, be it PS or CS, endpoint addresses are carried in connection setup messages

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Summarized addresses
What are summarized addresses? Why summarize addresses?

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Summarized addresses
What are summarized addresses?
An address that represents a group of endpoint addresses e.g., all 212 numbers, 128.238 IP addresses

Why summarize addresses?

Reduces routing table sizes hold one entry for a summarized address instead of a large number of individual addresses Reduces routing message lengths that convey reachability information
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Examples of signaling protocols

SS7 (Signaling System No. 7) network (with its SS7 protocol stack) carries signaling messages to set up and release circuits in a telephone network

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Examples of routing protocols

In an Ethernet network
Spanning tree algorithm and address learning

In the Internet:
Link-state routing protocols, such as Open Path Shortest First (OSPF) Distance-vector based routing protocols, such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

In telephone networks:
Real-Time Network Routing (RTNR)
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Examples of addressing schemes

Internet
4-byte IP addresses

Telephone networks
8-byte E.164 address (telephone number)

ATM networks
20-byte ATM End System Address (AESA)

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Broadcast links
Wireless Copper: ethernet hubs Optical fiber: Passive star couplers
Ethernet hub or WDM Passive Star Coupler
Dest: A

Ethernet switch (packet switch)

Blind broadcast
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MAC protocols
Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are used in broadcast links to allow a node to access medium and send information As if switch is in endpoints Wasteful of resources because all endpoints receive all packets
Bs MAC layer checks destination address to determine whether the packet should be switched to the application or dropped

End-user equipment A

To B

End-user equipment B

Cs MAC layer checks destination address to determine whether the packet should be switched to the application or dropped

End-user equipment C
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To B

Consider wireless links

Naturally broadcast medium
One transmitter sends data; multiple receivers can receive the signal and obtain the data Need a MAC (Medium Access Control) protocol to share the naturally broadcast wireless medium
Endpoint

Endpoint
Endpoint
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Shared links in wired domain

outbound inbound

Hub or optical passive star coupler

Host Host Host

Multipoint drops: potential interference on inbound line polling; e.g. multidrop telephone lines

Hubs/Optical passive star couplers: any data received on one line is broadcast to all other lines

Distance limitation between farthest hosts Shannons capacity; SNR; attenuation

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Classification of MAC protocols

MAC protocols

Fixed-assignment schemes Circuit-switched (e.g., FDMA, TDMA) Channelization

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Random-access schemes Connectionless packet-switched (e.g., Ethernet, 802.11)

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Demand assignment schemes

Connection-oriented packet-switched (e.g., CDMA, polling)

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Shared link as a LAN: relation between MAC protocols and LANs

A shared link allows multiple end stations to hear a transmission from any station No node is serving as a forwarding engine for packets in a controlled fashion
hubs, passive star couplers, ring adapters, taps blindly send data UNLIKE switches, routers, bridges

This shared link concept works well as a local area network

if too large a network with many hosts each host will get a small percentage of bandwidth
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Shared links as access links

Two reasons for using shared links on the access segment
individual endpoints (hosts/phones) generate small quantities of data traffic Costs should be kept low for end users

Consequence: access links are often shared MAC protocols in the upstream direction
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Shared link in the presence of basestations/APs?

Is it still one shared link if basestations/APs forward data between two endpoints that cannot hear each other No, basestations/APs become forwarding engines, i.e., switches If a cell phone under one basestation calls another cell phone under the same basestation and the basestation allocates frequencies for both ends and forwards data bits Not different from a circuit switch forwarding bits received on one DS0 to another DS0 Same thing when an AP uses destination addresses to rebroadcast data it acts as a packet switch

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Compare TDMA on an access link with TDM on an inter-switch link

Basestation Circuit switch
Endpoint Timeslot 1 Endpoint Timeslot 2 Endpoint Timeslot 3 T1 line carrying 24 different DS0s (phone calls)

Circuit switch

Similar in concept: sharing resources on one link among many users Difference:
Multiple senders on access link One sender in each direction on inter-switch link
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Internetworking
An internet
A path that traverses multiple networks possibly ones using different networking techniques

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Single networks
Simplest network one link Endpoint Endpoint

A shared link: often used to create a LAN

Endpoint

Endpoint

Endpoint

One network same type of switches link rates can be different Endpoint Switch Endpoint
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Endpoint Switch Endpoint

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The Internet approach to internetworking

An internetwork
Endpoint Switch Endpoint Switch Endpoint

Switch

Switch
Endpoint

IP router Network 1 Network 3 Network 2

Have all endpoints speak the IP (Internet Protocol) in addition to their own network protocols For loss-sensitive applications: run TCP, an end-to-end transport protocol, irrespective of whether
both ends are within the same network the two ends are on different networks

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IP routers are connectionless packet switches

53 they forward IP packets from one network to another based onPolytechnic University the destination IP address carried in the IP header and information stored in their routing tables

Protocol stacks in the Internet

Endpoint A
Inter-T:TCP

Endpoint A IP router routerrouter

Inter-N: IP
Inter-T:TCP

Inter-N: IP

Inter-N: IP

T1 N1 L1 P1

Switch N1 L1 P1 L2 P2

Switch N1 L2 P2
L3

T1 N1 L3 P3

T2 N2 L4 P4

Switch N2 L4 P4 L5 P5

Switch N2 L5 P5 L6 P6

T2 N2 L6 P6

P3

Network 1

Network 2

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Todays most common networks in the Internet

Ethernet within enterprises using a combination of
shared-medium Ethernet LANs with hubs, or with Ethernet switches which are connectionless packet switches

PDH/SONET networks in the MAN and WAN domains

Routers are interconnected by T1, T3, OC3 connections that are set up through a PDH/SONET circuit-switched network PPP, Point-to-Point Protocol, is executed on these circuits
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Need Internet address and Network address

Internetwork IP router
Host A
Switch 1 Switch 2

1 3

Switch 3

Switch 4

Host C

Host B

Host D

Ethernet 1
Host A sends a packet to Host C: - Places Host Cs IP address in IP header - To get through Ethernet 1, it needs Ethernet address of IP routers interface 1 - Switch 1 and Switch 2 forward packets based on destination Ethernet address of IP routers interface 1 - IP router forwards packet to port 2 to reach Host C (based on IP level routing data using destination IP address of host C) - IP router needs Ethernet address of Host C to send the packet through Ethernet 2 M. and 4 forward packets based on destination Ethernet address 56 - Switch 3Veeraraghavan of Host C

Ethernet 2

Host E Switch Switch Host F

Ethernet 3
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Summary
Reviewed networking concepts

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