Computer Systems Organization and Architecture

- A Review Miss Sheena I. Sapuay Instructor, CoE Elec 2

ARCHITECTURE
A general term referring to the structure of all or part of a computer system. The term also covers the design of system software, such as the operating system (the program that controls the computer), as well as referring to the combination of hardware and basic software that links the machines on a computer network.

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ARCHITECTURE cont.
Computer architecture refers to an entire structure and to the details needed to make it functional. Thus, computer architecture covers computer systems, microprocessors, circuits, and system programs. the term does not refer to application programs, such as spreadsheets or word processing, which are required to perform a task but not to make the system run.

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COMPUTER
Machine that performs tasks, such as calculations or electronic communication, under the control of a set of instructions called a program.

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USES OF COMPUTER
In business, computers track inventories with bar codes and scanners, check the credit status of customers, and transfer funds electronically. In homes, tiny computers embedded in the electronic circuitry of most appliances control the indoor temperature, operate home security systems, tell the time, and turn videocassette recorders (VCRs) on and off.

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USES OF COMPUTER cont.

Computers in automobiles regulate the flow of fuel, thereby increasing gas mileage. Computers also entertain, creating digitized sound on stereo systems or computer-animated features from a digitally encoded laser disc. Educators use computers to track grades and communicate with students (computer aided instruction).

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USES OF COMPUTER cont.

Computers are used extensively in scientific research to solve mathematical problems, investigate complicated data, or model systems that are too costly or impractical to build, such as testing the air flow around the next generation of aircraft.

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USES OF COMPUTER cont.

The military employs computers in sophisticated communications to encode and unscramble messages, and to keep track of personnel and supplies.

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BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

The physical computer and its components are known as hardware. Computer hardware includes:
the memory that stores data and program instructions; the central processing unit (CPU) that carries out program instructions; the input devices, such as a keyboard or mouse, that allow the user to communicate with the computer; the output devices, such as printers and video display monitors, that enable the computer to present information to the user; buses (hardware lines or wires) that connect these and other computer components.

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BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

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STORED PROGRAM ARCHITECTURE

one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as its data, in read-write, randomaccess memory (RAM) This architecture is implemented using Von Neumann Architecture

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VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

a design model for a stored-program digital computer that uses a central processing unit (CPU) and a single separate storage structure ("memory") to hold both instructions and data. It is named after the mathematician and early computer scientist John von Neumann.

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VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

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VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

All temporary computer designs are based on this architecture KEY CONCEPTS:
Data & instructions are stored in a single readwrite memory Contents of memory are addressable by location Execution occurs in a sequential fashion

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VON NEUMANN BOTTLENECK

separation between the CPU and memory
the limited throughput (data transfer rate) between the CPU and memory compared to the amount of memory

seriously limits the effective processing speed when the CPU is required to perform minimal processing on large amounts of data

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VON NEUMANN BOTTLENECK

The CPU is continuously forced to wait for needed data to be transferred to or from memory. Since CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster than the throughput between them, the bottleneck has become more of a problem, a problem whose severity increases with every newer generation of CPU.
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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Otherwise known as processor the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, and is the primary element carrying out the computer's functions

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

ACTIONS PERFORMED BY CPU

Processor Memory
Data may be transferred from processor to memory & vice versa

Processor I/O
Data may be transferred to or from a peripheral device by transferring bet. the processor and an I/O module

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

ACTIONS PERFORM BY CPU

Data Processing
Performance of some arithmetic/logic operations on data

Control
May specify the sequence of execution be altered

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INSTRUCTION PROCESSING
Processor reads (fetch) instruction from memory one at a time & executes each instruction PROGRAM EXECUTION:
FETCH CYCLE instruction & data is taken from the memory EXECUTE CYCLE instruction is executed by the processor
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INSTRUCTION CYCLE
also called fetch-and-execute cycle or fetchdecode-execute cycle the time period during which a computer processes a machine language instruction from its memory or the sequence of actions that the central processing unit (CPU) performs to execute each machine code instruction in a program
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Basic Instruction Cycle

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INSTRUCTION CYCLE
Fetch the instruction
The CPU presents the value of the program counter (PC) on the address bus. The CPU then fetches the instruction from main memory via the data bus into the memory data register (MDR). The value from the MDR is then placed into the instruction register (IR).

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INSTRUCTION CYCLE
Decode the instruction
The instruction decoder interprets and implements the instruction. The instruction register (IR) holds the current instruction, while the program counter (PC) holds the address in memory of the next instruction to be executed. Fetch required data from main memory to be processed and place it into data registers.
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INSTRUCTION CYCLE
Execute the instruction
From the instruction register, the data forming the instruction is decoded by the control unit. It then passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to add them together and writing the result back to a register.
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PROGRAM COUNTER (PC)

Holds the address of the instruction to fetched next Unless told otherwise, the processor always increment the PC after each instruction is fetched
EX. PC=300,

The processor will the next instruction at location 300 After fetching, PC is incremented the next value of PC is 301, then 302, 303, and so on.

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INSTRUCTION REGISTER (IR)

Register inside the CPU where the fetched instruction is loaded a circuit that holds the instruction temporarily so that it can be decoded and executed INSTRUCTION
Bits specifying the action of the processor to take

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

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Example of Program Execution

(contents of memory and registers in hexadecimal)

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INTERRUPTS & INSTRUCTION CYCLE

The processor can be engaged in executing other instructions while an I/O operation is in progress An interruption of the normal sequence of program execution Execution resumes when interrupt processing is completed

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INTERRUPTS
Interrupt the normal sequencing of the processor Provided to improve processor utilization
Most I/O devices are slower than the processor Processor must pause to wait for device

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

Transfer Control via Interrupt

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CLASSES OF INTERRUPTS

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INSTRUCTION CYCLE W/ & W/O INTERRUPTS

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

Instruction Cycle with Interrupts

Fetch Cycle

Execute Cycle

Interrupt Cycle

Interrupts disabled

START

Fetch Next Instruction

Execute Instruction

Interrupts enabled

Check for Interrupt; Process Interrupt

HALT

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SIMPLE INTERRUPT PROCESSING

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MULTIPLE INTERRUPT PROCESSING

Suppose an interrupt occurs while another interrupt is being processed.
E.g. printing data being received via communications line.

Two approaches:
Disable interrupts during interrupt processing Use a priority scheme.

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

THE MICROPROCESSOR
An electronic circuit that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, providing computational control. one type of ultra-large-scale integrated circuit. Integrated circuits, also known as microchips or chips, are complex electronic circuits consisting of extremely tiny components formed on a single, thin, flat piece of material known as a semiconductor.
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THE MICROPROCESSOR
Modern microprocessors incorporate transistors (which act as electronic amplifiers, oscillators, or, most commonly, switches), in addition to other components such as resistors, diodes, capacitors, and wires, all packed into an area about the size of a postage stamp.

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

THE MICROPRESSOR: SECTIONS

Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
performs calculations on numbers and makes logical decisions

Registers
the registers are special memory locations for storing temporary information much as a scratch pad does

Control Unit
deciphers programs; logic which controls the data paths
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THE MICROPRESSOR: SECTIONS

Buses
carry digital information throughout the chip and computer

Cache memory
Internal data storage speed up access to external data-storage devices

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

THE MICROPROCESSOR
Modern microprocessors operate with bus widths of 64 bits, meaning that 64 bits of data can be transferred at the same time. A crystal oscillator in the computer provides a clock signal to coordinate all activities of the microprocessor. The clock speed of microprocessors allows billions of computer instructions to be executed every second.
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MACHINE INSTRUCTION
The operation of the CPU is determined by the instructions it executes Each CPU comprises an INSTRUCTION SET
Collection of instructions that the CPU executes

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

ELEMENTS OF MACHINE INSTRUCTION

Each instruction must contain the information required by the CPU for execution OPERATION CODE specifies the operation to be performed (ADD, MOV etc.), specified by a binary code

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

ELEMENTS OF MACHINE INSTRUCTION

SOURCE OPERAND
Operands that are input for the operation

RESULT OPERAND
Operation may produce result

NEXT INSTRUCTION REFERENCE

Tells the CPU where to fetch the next instruction.

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INSTRUCTION REPRESENTATION
Each instruction is represented by a sequence 6 bits 6 bits of bits 4 bits OP CODE OPERAND REF OPERAND REF Ex.
16 bits

OPCODES are represented by abbreviations called mnemonics that indicate operations

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INSTRUCTION TYPES
A high-level language expresses operation in a concise algebraic form using variables A machine language expresses operation in a basic form involving movement of data to or from registers

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INSTRUCTION TYPES
Data Processing
Arithmetic/logic instructions

Data Storage
Memory instructions

Data Movement
I/O instructions

Control
Test and branch instructions
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TYPES OF OPERANDS
Addresses Numbers
Numeric data types (integer, float, decimal)

Characters
Text or character strings

Logical Data
Boolean data

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

INSTRUCTION SET
a list of all the instructions, and all their variations, that a processor can execute Instructions include:
Arithmetic such as add and subtract Logic instructions such as and, or, and not Data instructions such as move, input, output, load, and store Control flow instructions such as goto, if ... goto, call, and return.
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INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE (ISA)

is the part of the computer architecture related to programming, including the native data types, instructions, registers, addressing modes, memory architecture, interrupt and exception handling, and external I/O An ISA includes a specification of the set of OPCODES, the native commands implemented by a particular processor.
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CISC
stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer Most PC's use CPU based on this architecture Typically CISC chips have a large amount of different and complex instructions.

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

CISC
The philosophy behind this is hardware is always faster than software, therefore one should make a powerful instruction set, which provides programmers with assembly instructions to do a lot with short programs.

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

RISC
stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. The philosophy behind it is that almost no one uses complex assembly language instructions as used by CISC, and people mostly use compilers which never use complex instructions.

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Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

RISC
fewer, simpler and faster instructions would be better, than the large, complex and slower CISC instructions. However, more instructions are needed to accomplish a task. because of the more simple instructions, RISC chips require fewer transistors, which makes them easier to design and cheaper to produce
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CISC versus RISC

CISC Emphasis on hardware Includes multi-clock complex instructions Memory-to-memory: "LOAD" and "STORE" incorporated in instructions Small code sizes, high cycles per second Transistors used for storing complex instructions
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RISC Emphasis on software Single-clock, reduced instruction only Register to register: "LOAD" and "STORE" are independent instructions Low cycles per second, large code sizes Spends more transistors on memory registers

Miss Sheena I. Sapuay

Decades of Computing

INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE and PARALLEL COMPUTING

Miss Sheena I. Sapuay Instructor, CoE Elec 2