ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

CONCEPT OF ELEMENT, COMPOUND, ATOM AND MOLECULE

Elements - A substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. - eg. carbon, oxygen, iron, etc. Compounds - combinations of few elements - eg. stainless steel, mild steel, cast iron

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued. Atoms - smallest part of an element - consists of : a) protons b) neutrons c) electrons

Pg 136

Molecules - smallest portion of a material that can exist independently and able to retain the properties of the original compound Pg. 136 eg. water

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
a) Protons - positive electrical charge (+ve) - mass = 1.673 x 10-24 gram - located in the nucleus b) Neutrons - neutral electrical charge - mass = 1.675 x 10-24 gram (slightly heavier than protons) - also located in the nucleus c) Electrons - negative electrical charge (-ve) - mass = 9.11 x 10-28 gram (1/1840 of the mass of proton) - located in its orbits

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

ATOMIC NUMBER AND WEIGHT
Generally, all elements are written as:

XA Z
where

eg. 1H1, 2He4, 8O16

Z - atomic number - denotes the number of protons in the nucleus x - element A - mass number - sum of neutrons and protons in the nucleus - approximately equal to the atomic weight

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

ISOTOPES AND RADIOISOTOPES
Isotopes - elements with a same atomic number (Z) and different mass number (A) - eg. 1H1, 1H2, 1H3, 92U235, 92U238 - stable when the extra neutron does not upset the balance in the nucleus Radioisotopes - unstable neutron (the extra neutron disturb the balance in the nucleus) - it will disintegrate or decay to be stable - natural radioisotopes : radium, radon - artificial radioisotopes : U-238, Co-60, etc. : produced in the nuclear reactor

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

DISCOVERY OF RADIATION
1985 - Roentgen found that rays caused certain chemicals to fluoresce and can penetrate solid substances. - X - RAYS 1896 - Bacquerel discovered that certain radiation from certain material could fog the photographic film - material that contains uranium give off radiation that could penetrate materials Years later - Rutherford classified those radiation into three types: 1) alpha particle (+ve charged) Pg 138 2) beta particle (-ve charged) 3) gamma rays (no charged)

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

TYPES OF RADIATION
1) Particulate Radiation - tiny particles that move in space - eg. alpha, beta and neutron - the characteristics : a) have mass b) have an electrical charge c) able to transfer energy from one point to another d) travel at high speed e) may strike and be deflected by other particles f) maybe stopped and captured by nuclei g)may cause ionisation

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued.
2) electromagnetic radiation - the characteristics: a. have no mass or weight b. travel at speed of light c. travel in straight line d.not affected by magnetic field - parameters involve: a. frequency b. wavelength c. speed of radiation through space frequency X wavelength = speed

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

RADIOACTIVITY
Definition - disintegration of unstable isotopes / radioisotopes emitting tiny particles travelling at high speeds and/or energy in the form waves. - types of particles and energies that are released from the nuclei of radioactive atom : a) alpha particles - largest particulate radiation Pg 139 (2 protons and 2 neutrons) b) beta particles - very light high speed electron c) gamma ray - energy waves - widely used in industrial radiography eg. Ir-192

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued
Unit of radioactivity - old unit : curie : 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration per second - new (S.I) unit : Becquerel (Bq) : 1 Bq is defined as 1 integration per second : 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq Specific activity - defined as disintegration per second per unit mass of the source - unit : Ci / gm

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

PRINCIPLE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay - the activity of a radioactive material dies out with the passage of time

0.693 v t N1! N0 exp  1 T2

# IMPORTANT!!!! Pg 141

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued...
where, N0 = number of radioactive atoms present at some reference time t0 Nt = number of radioactive atoms left after time t has passed T1/2 = half-life of the radioisotope * T1/2 - TIME AFTER WHICH THE NUMBER OF RADIOACTIVE ATOMS REDUCE TO HALF (50%) FROM ITS INITIAL VALUE

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued.
Eg. 1. The source strength of radioisotope Ir-192 40 days ago was 9 Ci. What is the present strength? (half life of Ir-192 is 75 days) Solution : Given t = 40 days  0.693 v t T1/2 = 75 days N ! N 0 exp T1 N0 = 9 Ci

 0.693 v t N ! 9 Ci exp T1 2

= 9 Ci x 0.691 = 6.22 Ci

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER
1. IONISATION - any action which disturbs the electrical balance of the atom - this process may change the number of electrons Pg 142 2. IONS - atoms, molecules and various subatomic particles that carry either positive or negative electrical charge - eg. Fe2+, Cl-

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

MODE OF INTERACTION
1. Photoelectric absorption - an interaction with orbital electrons in which a photon of electromagnetic radiation is consumed in breaking the bond and imparts kinetic energy to the electron - it occurs at low energy (<0.5Mev) and when it penetrates matter of high atomic number - process 1. Low energy photon collides with an electron in the inner shells of the atom 2. The proton transfer its entire energy to the electron 3. The electron will be ejected from the atom Pg 142 as photo-electron

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued
4. the electron becomes negative ions and the atom becomes positive ions. 2. Compton Scattering - interaction between an incident photon and a loosely held orbital electron - only a portion of kinetic energy of the photon is consumed Pg 143 - this interaction occurs at energy about 0.1 to 3.0 MeV 3. Pair Production - photon interaction with the electric field surrounding or in the Pg 143 vicinity of the nucleus atom

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued
- the energy from the incident atom is completely absorbed in creation of a positron electron pair - it happens at very energy which the photon energy must be above 1.02 MeV - the positron that is created will combine with electron and emit two gamma photons with low energy that is 0.51 MeV each - the low energy gamma photons will be the incident photon and may cause ionisation by the photoelectric effect or by Compton scattering

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

ATTENUATION OF X- AND GAMMA RADIATION
- attenuation happens due to a. transmission Pg 144 b. absorption c. scattering - when X or gamma ray (with uniform energy) pass through a material their intensity will decrease exponentially to an extent which is definite function of the thickness of the absorbing material - the photons will decrease by a constant percentage of the whole for a given thickness of a absorber material

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued
-how much the radiations are absorbed or scattered gives information about the materials that the radiation pass through -the formula for intensity is given as below:

I ! IO e

 Qt
Pg 145 # ideal case : - thin material - exam !!!!

where I = intensity of the transmitted radiation I0 = initial intensity t = thickness of material = attenuation coefficient (cm-1) ffgdb

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued
Eg. 1) If the dose rate from a radiographic source of Ir-192 is 100 mR/hr. What thickness of lead shielding is required to reduce the dose rate at 1.0 mR/hr? Solution: I = 1.0 mR/hr , I0 = 100 mR/hr , x = ? 1 = 100 e (-1.435 x) 1 / 100 = e (-1.435x) 0.01 = e (-1.435x) ln 0.01 = ln e (-1.435x) (check back) - 4.6052 = - 1.435 t t = 4.6052 / 1.435 = 3.209 Therefore the thickness is 3.209 cm.

I ! I0 e

 Qt

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

BUILD - UP FACTOR
- build up intensity radiation happens due to multiple scattering - applicable for thick material

I ! I0 B e
where B is the build up factor Pg 145

Q x

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIATION

Continued
-build up factor is defined as : * the ratio of the actual radiation flux and the calculated flux *

True flux B! Calculated flux

THANK YOU FOR ATTENTION

GOOD LUCK