ninth edition

STEPHEN P. ROBBINS

MARY COULTER

Chapter

17

Leadership

PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook The University of West Alabama

Introduction
The quality of leadership is an important element in an organizations success, since leaders influence employees to work together toward the fulfillment of a companys mission and the achievement of its goals.

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Leaders and Leadership

Certain distinctions can be made between managers and leaders. While managers are appointed and have legitimate power within the organization, a leader is someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority. Leader Someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority Leadership What leaders do; the process of influencing a do; group to achieve goals Ideally, all managers should be leaders Although groups may have informal leaders who emerge, those are not the leaders were studying Leadership research has tried to answer: What is an effective leader?
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Early Leadership Theories

Trait Theories (1920s-30s) (1920s Research focused on identifying personal characteristics that differentiated leaders from nonleaders was unsuccessful.  Later research on the leadership process identified seven traits associated with successful leadership:
 Drive,

the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, selfselfconfidence, intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and jobextraversion.

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Seven Traits Associated with Leadership

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Early Leadership Theories (contd)

Behavioral Theories
 University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin)
 Identified

three leadership styles:

Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation Democratic style: involvement, high participation, feedback Laissez faire style: hands-off management hands Research

findings: mixed results

No specific style was consistently better for producing better performance Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader than an autocratic leader.

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 Behavioral Theories (contd)

 Ohio State Studies
 Identified

two dimensions of leader behavior

Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining his or her role and the roles of group members in the search goal attainment. It included behavior that involved organize work, work relationship. Consideration: the extend to which a leader has mutual trust and respect for group members ideas and feelings. A leader with high consideration help group members with personal problems, friendly and approachable.

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 Research

findings: mixed results

High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high Highgroup task performance and satisfaction. Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly influence leadership effectiveness.

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 Behavioral Theories (contd)

 University of Michigan Studies
 Identified

two dimensions of leader behavior

Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships they took a personal interest in their needs of their followers and accepted individual differences among group members. Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment and technical aspects of the job and regarded group members as a means to that end.
 Research

findings:

Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly associated with high group productivity and high job satisfaction.
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The Managerial Grid

Managerial Grid
 Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions:
 Concern  Concern

for people for production management management

 Places managerial styles in five categories:

 Impoverished  Task

management club management

 Middle-of-the-road Middle-of-the Country  Team

management
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Exhibit 173 17 The Managerial Grid

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Exhibit 172 17

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

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Exhibit 172 (contd) Behavioral Theories of Leadership 17

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Contingency Theories of Leadership

The Fiedler Model (contd)
 Proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leaders style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence.  Assumptions:
A

certain leadership style should be most effective in different types of situations. do not readily change leadership styles.
Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to make it favorable to the leader is required.

 Leaders

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 Fiedler developed the least-preferred coworker least(LPC) questionnaire, which measures whether a person is task or relationship oriented. This questionnaire contained 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives. Respondents were asked to think of all the coworkers they had ever had and to describe the person they least preferred to work with, using the 18 sets of adjectives. Fiedler believed that a persons basic leadership style could be determined on the basis of their answers.
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 Fiedler also isolated three situational criteria that he believed could be manipulated to create the proper match with the behavioral orientation of the leader: Leader-member relations described the degree Leaderof confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader. Task structure described the degree to which job assignments are formalized and procedurized. Position power described the degree of influence a leader had over power-based activities such as powerhiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases.
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Contingency Theories (contd)

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
 Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers readiness.
 Acceptance: Acceptance:  Readiness:

leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or reject a leader. the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.

 Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as they become more competent.
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Contingency Theories (contd)

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
 Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating Fiedlers two leadership dimensions:
 Telling: Telling:  Selling:

high task-low relationship leadership taskhigh task-high relationship leadership tasklow task-high relationship task-

 Participating:

leadership
 Delegating:

low task-low relationship leadership task1718

 Readiness: The final component in the model is the four stages of followers: R1: people are both unable and unwilling to task responsibility for doing something. ...neither competent nor confident. People are unable but willing to do the necessary job tasks. They are motivated but lack skills. People able and unwilling to do what leaders wants. People are able and willing to do what is asked of them.

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 Unable / Unwilling..telling style Unwilling..telling unable / willing selling style Able / unwilling.participative style unwilling.participative Able / willing.delegating willing.delegating

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Contingency Theories (contd)

Leader Participation Model (Vroom and Yetton) Yetton) It relates leadership behavior and participation in decision making. Posits that leader behavior must be adjusted to reflect the task structurewhether it is routine, structure nonroutine, or in betweenbased on a sequential between set of rules (contingencies) for determining the form and amount of follower participation in decision making in a given situation.

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Contingency Theories (contd)

Leader Participation Model Contingencies:
 Decision significance  Importance of commitment  Leader expertise  Likelihood of commitment  Group support  Group expertise  Team competence

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Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model

Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group. Consult Individually: Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Consult Group: Leader presents the problem to group members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Facilitate: Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made. Delegate: Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits.

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Contingency Theories (contd)

Path-Goal Model PathStates that the leaders job is to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support to ensure their goals are compatible with organizational goals.

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 Path-goal theory says that a leaders behavior Pathis acceptable to subordinates to the degree that they view it as an immediate source of satisfaction or a source of future satisfaction. The leaders behavior is motivational to the extent that it makes subordinate needneedsatisfaction contingent on effective performance and provides the coaching, guidance, support, and rewards necessary for effective performance

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 Four leadership behaviors were identified by House: The directive leader lets subordinates know what is expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks. The supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for subordinates needs. The participative leader consults with subordinates and uses their suggestions before making a decision. The achievement-oriented leader sets challenging achievementgoals and expects subordinates to perform at their highest level.
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 The path-goal theory proposes two classes of pathsituational or contingency variables that moderate the leadership behavior-outcome relationship: behavior Variables in the environment that are outside of the control of the follower Variables that are part of the personal characteristics of the follower

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PathPath-Goal Theory

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 The following hypotheses have evolved from pathpath-goal theory: Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when subordinates are performing structured tasks.
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 Directive leadership leads to higher employee satisfaction when there is substantive conflict within a work group. Achievement-oriented leadership increases Achievementsubordinates 'expectancies that effort will lead to high performance when tasks are ambiguously structure.

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Contemporary Views on Leadership

Transactional Leadership Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. In other words, they motivate followers to work towards established goals by exchanging rewards for their productivity.

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 Transformational Leadership Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization selfby clarifying role and task requirements. Leaders who also are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on their followers.

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 Charismatic Leadership An enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose selfpersonality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways. Characteristics of charismatic leaders: leaders: Have a vision. Are able to articulate the vision. Are willing to take risks to achieve the vision. Are sensitive to the environment and follower needs. Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.
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 Visionary Leadership A leader who creates and articulates a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation. Visionary leaders have the ability to: Explain the vision to others. Express the vision not just verbally but through behavior. Extend or apply the vision to different leadership contexts.
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Team leadership
As work teams become more prevalent in the workplace, the role of team leader becomes increasingly important. The existence of work teams necessitates that managers learn how to become effective team leaders. Skillful team leaders master the difficult balancing act of knowing when to leave their teams alone and when to become involved.

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 Team Leadership Characteristics Having patience to share information Being able to trust others and to give up authority Understanding when to intervene Team Leaders Job Managing the teams external boundary Facilitating the team process Coaching, facilitating, handling disciplinary problems, reviewing team and individual performance, training, and communication
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Specific Team Leadership Roles

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Leadership Issues in the 21st Century

Managing Power
 Legitimate power  The power a leader has as a result of his or her position.  Coercive power  The power a leader has to punish or control.  Reward power  The power to give positive benefits or rewards.  Expert power  The influence a leader can exert as a result of his or her expertise, skills, or knowledge.  Referent power  The power of a leader that arise because of a persons desirable resources or admired personal traits.

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2. Individual Power: A Basic For Influence Within organisations there some individual have a greater capacity than other to influence people successfully. What sources of power do people have at their disposal. Two major categories of individual power bases: Those that come with ones office Those come with oneself as an individual. individual.

2.1 Power that Comes with Office: People can influence others because of the formal power associated with their jobs. This is known as position power. Position power: power based on ones formal power: position in an organisation. There are four bases of position power: Legitimate, Reward, Coercive, and Information.

 Legitimate power: the individual power base power: derived from ones position in an organisational hierarchy; the accepted authority of ones position.

 Reward Power: this sort of power derived Power: from an individuals capacity to reward others. People who are holding certain jobs would have accessibility to desired outcomes (e.g., raises, and promotion) which in turn give them power to control individual. With managers rewards may be tangible (raises) or intangible (e.g., praise and recognition).

 Coercive power: this sort of power derived power: from the capacity to punish others. Most managers do not like threatening, but many people rely on coercive power in running their business. People have power simply because others know they have the opportunity to punish them, even if no explicit threat is made.

 Information power: the extent to which a power: supervisor provides a subordinate with the information needed to do the job.  People in top positions have unique sources of information that are not available to others (e.g., knowledge of company performance, market trends). Knowledge is power since information greatly contributes to the power of people in many jobs.

2.2 Personal Power Power also derived from an individuals own unique qualities or characteristics. This is know as personal power. power. There are four sources of personal power: Rational Persuasion, Expert Power, Referent Power, and Charisma

 Rational persuasion: using logical arguments persuasion: and factual evidence to convince others an idea is accepted.  Rational persuasion is effective when the parties involved are intelligent enough to make their cases strongly and to understand them clearly. It is the most popular types of influence used in organisations.

 Expert power: that is power based on superior power: knowledge of a certain field.  A coach, for example, has power over athletes to the extent he or she is recognized as knowing what is best. Once experts are accepted as such their power over others can be considerable. People who have not demonstrated their expertise clearly lack this important source of power. Those whose expertise are highly regarded, however, are among the most powerful people in organisations.

 Referent power: the individual power base power: derived from the degree to which one is liked and admired by others. Individual who are liked and respected by others can get others to alter their actions.  Senior managers with good reputations may find they have referent power over younger managers who wish to emulate them.

 Charisma: when some people are so liked by Charisma: others they are said to have charisma. Some people become highly influential because of their charismatic ways. What makes such individuals so influential: Having definite vision for the future. Excellent communicators; using colorful language and exciting metaphors to excite the crowd. Charismatic individuals inspire trust. Their integrity is never challenged.

Developing Credibility and Trust

Credibility (of a Leader) The assessment of a leaders honesty, competence, and ability to inspire by his or her followers Trust Is the belief of followers and others in the integrity, character, and ability of a leader. Dimensions of trust: integrity, competence, consistency, loyalty, and openness. Is related to increases in job performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, job satisfaction, and organization commitment.
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Research has identified five dimensions that make up the concept of trust: Integrity (honesty and truthfulness) Competence (technical and interpersonal (technical knowledge and skills) Consistency (reliability, predictability, and good (reliability, judgment in handling situations) Loyalty (willingness to protect a person, (willingness physically and emotionally) Openness (willingness to share ideas and information freely)

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Suggestions for Building Trust

Practice openness. Be fair. Speak your feelings. Tell the truth. Show consistency. Fulfill your promises. Maintain confidences. Demonstrate competence.
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Providing Ethical Leadership

Ethics are part of leadership when leaders attempt to:
 Foster moral virtue through changes in attitudes and behaviors.  Use their charisma in socially constructive ways.  Promote ethical behavior by exhibiting their personal traits of honesty and integrity.

Moral Leadership
 Involves addressing the means that a leader uses to achieve goals as well as the moral content of those goals.

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Empowering Employees
Empowerment
 Involves increasing the decision-making discretion of decisionworkers such that teams can make key operating decisions in develop budgets, scheduling workloads, controlling inventories, and solving quality problems.  Why empower employees?  Quicker responses problems and faster decisions.  Addresses the problem of increased spans of control in relieving managers to work on other problems.

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CrossCross-Cultural Leadership
National culture is an important situational variable in selecting the most appropriate style. Findings from research are provided in 17-38. 17-38. The GLOBE research program (introduced in Chapter Four) identifies universal aspects, including vision, foresight, trustworthiness, dynamism, positiveness, ability to provide encouragement, and proactiveness.

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 Universal Elements of Effective Leadership

 Vision  Foresight  Providing encouragement  Trustworthiness  Dynamism  Positiveness  Proactiveness

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Exhibit 1710 Selected Cross-Cultural Leadership Findings 17 Cross Korean leaders are expected to be paternalistic toward employees. Arab leaders who show kindness or generosity without being asked to do so are seen by other Arabs as weak. Japanese leaders are expected to be humble and speak frequently. Scandinavian and Dutch leaders who single out individuals with public praise are likely to embarrass, not energize, those individuals. Effective leaders in Malaysia are expected to show compassion while using more of an autocratic than a participative style. Effective German leaders are characterized by high performance orientation, low compassion, low self-protection, low team orientation, high autonomy, and high participation.

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 Gender Differences and Leadership

The contemporary leadership issue of gender and leadership sometimes involves controversy. What, if any, differences exist between male and female leaders and what implications might such differences have? Evidence generally has found that males and females do use different leadership styles.

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Gender Differences and Leadership

Research Findings

Males and females use different styles: Women tend to adopt a more democratic or participative style unless in a male-dominated malejob. Women tend to use transformational leadership. Men tend to use transactional leadership.
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Basics of Leadership
Give people a reason to come to work. Be loyal to the organizations people Spend time with people who do the real work of the organization. Be more open and more candid about what business practices are acceptable and proper and how the unacceptable ones should be fixed.

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Leadership Can Be Irrelevant!

Substitutes for Leadership
 Follower characteristics  Experience, training, professional orientation, or the need for independence  Job characteristics  Routine, unambiguous, and satisfying jobs  Organization characteristics  Explicit formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, or cohesive work groups

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3. Organisational Politics: Power in Action Our discussion of power focused on influencing other successfully. When this put into action we no longer are talking about power but about organisational politics. Organisational politics refer to actions not officially approved by an organisation that are taken to influence others to meet ones personal goal. Organisational politics involves placing ones selfselfinterest above the interest of the organisation.

3.1 Political Tactics: What Forms Do They Take? There are various forms of political behaviour in organisations. There are six techniques of organisational politics: Controlling Access to Information Cultivating a Favorable Impression Developing a Base of Support Blaming and Attacking Others Aligning oneself with More Powerful Others Playing Political Games

 Controlling Access to Information: Information is the lifeblood of organisations. Controlling who knows certain things is one of the most important ways to exercise power in organisations. For example:  You might withhold information that makes you look bad (negative sales information), Avoid contact with those who may ask for information you prefer not to disclose or Overwhelm other with irrelevant information.

 Cultivating a Favorable Impression:  people who are interested in enhancing their organisational control commonly engage in some degree of image building. It is an attempt to enhance their impression on other. Some people figure out what behaviors are generally appropriate in their organisations and then go of their way to make others aware they behaved in such a manner (organisational chameleons) chameleons)

 Developing a Base of Support: By gaining the support of others within the organisation.  For example, managers may lobby for their ideas before officially presenting them at meetings, avoiding the embarrassment of public rejection.

 Blaming and attacking Others:  This tactic includes blaming and attacking others when bad things happen.  One such common tactics here is finding a scapegoat: scapegoat: a person who is given the blame for someone elses failure or wrongdoing.

 Aligning Oneself with More Powerful Others:  One of the most direct ways to gain power is by connecting yourself with more powerful others.

 Playing political Games:  Many people or group may be trying to influence many other people or group simultaneously. There are four major categories of political games; authority, power base, rivalry and authority, base, change. change.

 Authority Games: Games: Insurgency games are played to resist authority. They range form mild (intentionally not doing what is asked) or sever (organising workers to sabotage their work place). In these cases organisations may fight back with counterinsurgency games. These game are games. played to counter resistance to authority. Achieve counterinsurgency games would be by invoking restricted authority and control over subordinates.

 Power Base Games: to increase the degree and breadth of ones power. Sponsorship games: when unpowerful subordinate games: may agree to help a more established person (his boss) by loyally supporting him in exchange for advice and informationas well as for some of his information power and prestige. Alliance games: are played among peers. When games: workers at the same level agree in advance to support each other to increase their power.

Empire games: in which an individual games: attempts to become more powerful by gaining responsibility for more and more important organisational decisions (e.g., control over budget, equipments) STOP HERE FOR THE FINAL EXAM

 Rivalry games: some political games are games: designed to weaken ones opponents. Line versus staff game: when a foreman on an game: assembly line may ignore advice and information from a corporate legal specialist about how to treat one of his production workers, thereby rendering the staff specialist less powerful. Rival camps game: when a production dept. game: may favor stability and efficiency whereas marketing dept. may favor growth and customer service. Each dept. attempts to cultivate the favor of those alliance who can support it .

 Change Games: these games are played to Games: create organisational change.  whistle-blowing game: when an whistlegame: organisational member secretly reports some wrongdoing to a higher authority in the hope of righting the wrong, thereby brining about change.

3.2 When Does Political Action Occur? There are several situation that trigger political activity: i. Conditions Triggering Political Action: political behaviour is likely to occur when uncertainty exists, large amount of scare recourses, organisational units have conflicting interests, or the parties involved have approximately equal power.

ii.

Politics in Human Resources Management: political behaviour often centers around key human resources management activities such as performance appraisals, personal selection, and compensation decisions. The very nature of human resources management activities in organisations makes them prime candidates for organisational politics.

Politics and the Organisational Life Span: organisations can be distinguished as those just being started by entrepreneurs (i.e., the birth and early growth stage), those that are fully developed (i.e., the maturity stage), and those facing decline and dissolution (i.e., the decline redevelopment stage).

When organisation is new: It may have little structure and be guided by the philosophy of the founder. The entrepreneur gains political power by presenting his ideas to the employees as being rational. The founder usually has complete access to information and makes decisions based on his or her own values to other in the organisations and, thereby, of exercising power over them. Political activity is not particularly likely during this stage.

As organisations mature and grow complex:  they tend to departmentalize, thus creating interests of different groups are likely to conflict.  political means may be used to gain advantage in such situations. The full range of political activities noted earlier (e.g., building coalitions) likely will be employed when organisations are mature.

When organisations begin to decline: Subunits become insecure and the need for the political action will be great as people and groups compete for the power and control the organisation. The decline stage reflects a time great of uncertainty and thus a period of in which political activity is likely to be quiet intense.

3.3 Assessing the ethics of Political Behaviour: There are no clear-cut ways to identify whether cleara certain organisational action is ethical, but there are some useful guidelines: i. Are Only Selfish Interests Promoted? If only ones personal, selfish interests are nurtured, political action may be unethical. (What do you think of removing some executives who take bad decisions leading the organisation to ruin??????)

  

Are Privacy Rights Respected? Action that violates basic human rights are unethical. Political tricks that rely on espionage techniques not only are illegal but also unethical in that they violate the affected individual's right to privacy.