Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids

Structure of Solids 1. Introduction 2. Types of Solids 3. Atomic Bonding 4. Growth of Semiconductor Materials Reference D.A. Neamen, Semiconductor Physics and Devices 4th Edition, (McGraw-Hill, 2010), pp.1 3, 12 14, 17 19.

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Introduction

1. Introduction
An IC comprises millions of interconnected transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc. Metals used for interconnects, contacts, and in the transistor structure. Examples: aluminium, copper, tungsten, polysilicon, metal silicides. Dielectrics for electrical insulation, mechanical support and environmental protection; part of device structure (transistor, capacitor dielectric). Examples: silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, various polymers. Semiconductors used to make the active device (transistors, LEDs, lasers). Examples: silicon, germanium, GaAs.
Intel Core i7 Processor 45nm process technology 731 million transistors

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Introduction

1.1 Semiconductors So called because they have electrical conductivities between that of metals (conductors) and insulators*.

Resistivity at room temperature

*Note, however, that semiconductors have unique properties that make them substantially different from metals (conductors) and insulators.

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

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Structure of Solids - Introduction

Atomic number Z Relative Atomic Mass

Common dopants for Si

* Group III (B, Ga, In) and Group V (P, As, Sb) elements used to dope Si.

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Types of Solids

2. Types of Solids
Classification according to the size of the ordered region: Amorphous Order in the range of a few atoms or on molecular dimensions Single-crystal One large crystal making up entire volume of material. Regularity of atomic arrangement present throughout entire solid. Polycrystalline High degree of order over many atomic / molecular dimensions. Ordered single-crystal regions are called grains. Grains vary in size and orientation. Grains are separated by grain boundaries.

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Types of Solids

Example: MOSFET

Symbol

Schematic

Polycrystalline silicon (Polysilicon)

Amorphous oxide

Single-crystal silicon
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of a section of the MOSFET.

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Atomic Bonding

3. Atomic Bonding
3.1 Covalent Bonding in Silicon Silicon (atomic number = 14) has 14 electrons occupying 3 shells: shell n = 1: 2 electrons (complete shell) shell n = 2: 8 electrons (complete shell) shell n = 3: 4 electrons (partially filled shell) The outermost shell (or the valence shell) is only partially filled, with 4 out of 8 possible states being occupied by electrons. Having 4 electrons in the valence shell places Silicon in Group IV of the periodic table. Other Group IV elements include carbon (C) and germanium (Ge).

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Atomic Bonding

Covalent bonds are formed when 2 atoms share a pair of electrons (called valence electrons) to form closed / complete valence shells (of 8 electrons). Group IV elements such as C, Si, Ge, tend to form covalent bonds. Each atom has 4 valence electrons which form 4 covalent bonds with 4 adjacent atoms. Results in a macromolecular solid.

Silicon atom forming 4 covalent bonds with 4 neighbouring atoms

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Atomic Bonding

The silicon atoms are arranged symmetrically in space the 4 atoms are arranged in a tetrahedron around the central atom. If we replicate arrangement of atoms, we end up with the diamond crystal structure. In a crystal, the atoms are positioned on a periodic array of points in space. Most Group IVA elements have the diamond structure C, Si, Ge, Sn.

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Atomic Bonding

Characteristics of covalently bonded solids (macromolecules):  Hard & strong with high melting points, e.g. 3815oC for diamond, 1414oC for silicon (strong bonds).  Brittle.  Electrically insulating at low temperatures (valence electrons are involved in covalent bonding). Silicon and germanium are semiconductors at room temperature (explained later).

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Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Atomic Bonding

3.2 Metallic Bonding Simple metals have a valence shell with 1, 2, or 3 electrons (e.g. Na, Ca, Al). In a solid metal, the valence electrons become free from the parent atom, and each metal atom contributes its valence electrons to a common pool of electrons. Can be visualized as positive metallic ion cores (atoms without their valence electrons) in a sea of electrons. Mobile free electrons give rise to good electrical & thermal conduction.

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Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Growth of Semiconductor Materials

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4. Growth of Semiconductor Materials

Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) ICs are fabricated on single-crystal silicon. The starting wafer is cut from a single-crystal of silicon. Typical wafer diameter in current production is 300 mm. In the 1970s, Si wafers were typically 75 mm in diameter. 450 mm wafer production is being planned.

Dicing Testing Packaging

300 mm wafer

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Growth of Semiconductor Materials

4.1 Growth of silicon crystal using Czochralski (CZ) method Start with purified polysilicon chips in a crystal pulling furnace, & melted (m.p. = 1410oC). Desired impurities (dopants) added to melt to control the electrical characteristics of the grown crystal. Tiny seed crystal (single-crystal of desired crystal orientation, low defect density) is brought into contact with the surface of the melt. Seed crystal is withdrawn slowly as it is rotated. Liquid solidifies onto the seed crystal as it is pulled.

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Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids Growth of Semiconductor Materials

Ingot is sliced up into wafers ~1mm thick. Wafers are then lapped & polished.

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Wafer Polishing

Ready for processing

Edited 07/2011, L S Tan

J Thong

Structure of Solids key knowledge

Rough orders of magnitude of carrier concentrations in metals & semiconductors. Group III elements (B, Al, Ga, In), Group IV elements (C, Si, Ge), and Group V elements (P, As, Sb). Classification of solids (amorphous, polycrystalline, crystalline). Nature and characteristics of bonding in Si (C, Ge). Nature of the metallic bond.

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