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The Nervous System
The Nervous System
The Nervous System
Organization
Organization
II. PNS
A. Afferent sensory nervous system B. Efferent motor nervous system
i. ii. Somatic motor Autonomic Motor
1. 2. Sympathetic Parasympathetic
CNS
Structural & functional center of the entire nervous system. Integrates sensory information:
Eyes Ears Smell Taste Touch
PNS
Periphery or outer region of body Nerves originate from the brain Afferent nerves deal with all incoming sensory info. Efferent nerves are all outgoing motor function
PNS
PNS
Somatic nervous system carries info. to the Skeletal muscle. Autonomic nervous system visceral motor (Smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, Glands, digestive, circulatory, reproductive, Urinary)
Sympathetic - prepares body to deal with immediate threats to self "Fight or Flight". Parasympathetic - coordinates the body's normal resting state. "Rest and Repair".
Anatomy
Structure Brain Average weight 1600grams (3.5 lbs.) Spinal cord Divisions 1. Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) 2. Diencephalon
A. Thalamus B. Hypothalamus C. Pineal Body (epithalamus)
Anatomy
3. Brain Stem
A. Mid brain B. Pons C. Medulla Oblongota
4.
Cerebellum
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Cerebral Hemispheres Most superior part of brain. 83% of brain mass Form the largest part of the brain, occupying the anterior and middle cranial fossae in the skull and extending backwards over the tentorium cerebelli.
They are made up of the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, tracts of synaptic connections, and the ventricles containing CSF.
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Separated from each other by median longitudinal fissure, and from cerebellum by transverse fissure; have gyri and sulci on surface Divided into five lobes, frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula lobes. Central sulcus delineates precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus.
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Supplied by three main arteries: Anterior Cerebral Artery, Middle Cerebral Artery, Posterior Cerebral Artery
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Regions of Cerebral Hemispheres 1. Outer cortex (Gray Matter) 2. Internal (White Matter) 3. Basal Nuclei
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Function of Cerebral Hemispheres (CONSCIOUS)
PERCEIVE COMMUNICATE REMEMBER UNDERSTAND APPRECIATE INITIATE VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
Lobes - Deeper sulci divide each hemisphere into lobes, named after the cranial bone that overlies it.
Each hemisphere is concerned with sensory and motor functions of the contralateral side of the body. Symmetrical in structure, but not equal in function. No functional area of the cortex acts alone, and conscious behavior involves the entire cortex.
(ii) Somatosensory association area (SSA): posterior to PSSC, many connections with it; integrates and analyzes somatosensory inputs into comprehensive evaluation of what is being felt.
(v) Olfactory cortex (OC): input from olfactory receptors. (vi) Gustatory cortex: perception of taste stimuli.
Anatomy (Cerebrum)
Subcortical nuclei
Deep within the cerebrum, diencephalons, and midbrain Involved in the control of motor functions.
Anatomy (Diencephalon)
Central core of forebrain Surrounded by CHs Includes:
Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus
Diencephalon (Thalamus)
Composed of masses of gray matter held together by midline commissure, the intermediate mass; forms superolateral walls of third ventricle.
Sorting out or editing of information occurs, impulses having to do with similar functions are relayed to appropriate area of sensory cortex and cortical association areas. Virtually all impulses ascending to cerebral cortex funneled through thalamus; thus thalamus is gateway to cortex.
Diencephalon (Thalamus)
Diencephalon (Thalamus)
Diencephalon (Thalamus)
Afferent impulses from all senses and all parts of the body converge here and the information is sorted and sent to the proper area of the brain.
Regulation of emotion Mediating sensation Motor activities Cortical arousal
Diencephalon (Thalamus)
Diencephalon (Hypothalamus)
Main visceral control center of the body Important to overall body homeostasis Located below thalamus, constitutes inferolateral walls of third ventricle; extends from optic chiasm to posterior margin of mammary bodies.
Diencephalon (Hypothalamus)
Diencephalon (Hypothalamus)
Diencephalon (Hypothalamus)
Main visceral control center of body, has several homeostatic roles:
Center for emotional response/behavior Body temperature regulation Regulation of food intake Regulation of water balance and thirst Regulation of sleep/wake cycles Control of endocrine system functioning
Diencephalon (Epithalamus)
Most dorsal part of diencephalon, helps form roof of the third ventricle. Most noticeable landmark is pineal gland -sleep/wake cycles
Diencephalon (Epithalamus)
Brain Stem
A. Midbrain B. Pons C. Medulla Oblongota
All are gray matter surrounding white tracts. Produce the rigidly programmed, autonomic behavoirs necessary for our survival. 10 of the 12 cranial nerves are heavily involved in innervation of the head.
Cerebellum
Located dorsally to pons/medulla and to intervening fourth ventricle Processes input received from cerebral motor cortex, various brain stem nuclei, and sensory receptors to provide the precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction required for smooth, coordinated functioning. Landmarks:
two cerebellar hemispheres separated by vermis medially, convoluted surface, exhibits folia.
Cerebellum
Cerebellum
Cerebellum
Function Process inputs received from the cerebral cortex, various brain centers and sensory receptors to provide the precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction needed for smooth coordinated movements.
The cerebellum continuously compares higher brains intention with the bodys performance and sends out messages to initiate the appropriate corrective measures.
Ventricles
Fluid (CSF) filled cavities within the brain Lined with ependymal cells
Lateral ventricle in each cerebral hemisphere, separated by the septa pellucida. Third ventricle a midline cavity located in the center of the diencephalons between the two halves of the thalamus.
Communicates with lateral ventricles via interventricular foramen.
Ventricles
Fourth ventricle supeior region of the medulla oblongata at the base of the cerebellum. Continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord.
Three openings, lateral apertures (2), and median aperture, connect it to subarachnoid space.
Ventricles
Lateral projections
lateral horns, and the
Dorsal Roots
Afferent sensory fibers from peripheral nervous system
All spinal tracts are part of multineuron pathways that connect brain to periphery
Anatomy (Meninges)
EXTERNAL Dura Mater INTERNAL Pia Mater
Arachnoid
Anatomy (Meninges)
Dural Septa The meningeal layer that extends inward to form flat septa that anchor the brain to the skull.
Falx cerebri Falx cerebelli Tentorium cerebelli
Anatomy (Meninges)
2. Arachnoid mater (spider mother)
Loose brain covering, never dipping into sulci.
Subdural space - Separated from the dura mater by a narrow serous cavity. Subarachnoid space Beneath the arachnoid, web-like structures span this space and secure the arachnoid to the underlying pia mater. This space is filled with Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF). Also contains the largest blood vessels serving the brain.
Anatomy (Meninges)
3. Pia Mater (Gentle Mother)
Delicate tissue, richly invested with tiny blood vessels. Clings tightly to the brain.
Cranial Nerves
1. Olfactory smell, from the nasal mucosa to the olfactory bulbs Optic sensory nerve of vision Occulomotor motor to eye muscles Trochlear motor to one eye muscle
2. 3. 4.
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
5. Trigeminal Divided into 3 branches
Opthalmic sensory from scalp, forehead, nose, upper eyelid, and cornea. Maxillary sensory from palate, upper jaw, upper teeth and gums, nasopharynx, nasal cavity, skin and mucous membranes of the cheeks, lower eyelid, and upper lip Mandibular sensory from lower jaw, lower teeth and gums, anterior tongue, mucous membrane of cheek, lower lip, skin of cheek and chin, auricle, and temporal region.
Motor to muscles of mastication, soft palate, throat, and middle ear.
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
6. 7. Abducens motor to eye muscle. Facial sense of taste, motor to muscles of facial expression, throat and middle ear. Parasympathetic to submandibular, and sublingual salivary glands, lacrimal glands, and glands of the nasal cavity and palate. Vestibulocochlear hearing and balance.
8.
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
9. Glossopharyngeal Sensory taste, pharynx, palatine tonsils, tongue, middle ear, carotid sinus, and carotid body.
Motor to pharyngeal muscles. Parasympathetic to parotid salivary glands and glands of the tongue.
10. Vagus sensory from inferior pharynx, larynx, thoracic and abdominal organs.
Motor to soft palate, pharynx, laryngeal muscles, and tongue muscles. Parasympathetic to abdominal and thoracic viscera.
Cranial Nerves
11. Accessory motor to soft palate, pharynx, sternocleidomastoid, and trapezius. 12. Hypoglossal motor to tongue muscles, and throat muscles.
Cranial Nerves
PNS
The PNS provides the link to the outside world -- both in terms of reception of stimuli and response Includes all neural structures outside the brain and spinal cord:
sensory receptors, peripheral nerves, their associated ganglia, and efferent motor endings.
Nerves with only sensory fibers are sensory nerves, with only motor fibers are motor nerves
peripheral nerves are classified as either cranial or spinal nerves.
Anatomy (Neurons)
Made up of a cell body and Axon(s) and one or more dendrites. Excitable cells that conduct impulses that make possible all nervous system functions. Cell body - is largest part of cell resides in CNS
Anatomy (Neurons)
Anatomy (Neurons)
Dendrites - Branch extensively from cell body. Distal ends are receptors. Conduct impulses to the cell body. Axon Single process, extends from a tapered hillock of the cell body. Conducts impulses away from cell body
Side branches called Axon Collaterals Distal tips from branches are called Telodendria that terminate into a Synaptic Knob Contains mitochondria and numerous vesicles for neurotransmitters.
Classification of Neurons
Multipolar - many dendrites and a single axon, most are found within CNS and motor neurons. Bipolar - 2 processes a dendrite and an axon, located in some sensory organs
i.e. retina of eye, and nasal cavity.
Unipolar - single process extending from the cell body, this process divides into two branches a short distance from the cell body.
One branches to the CNS, and the other to the periphery and has dendrite like sensory receptors the two branches function as a single axon.
Neuroglia Cells
Neuroglia cells more numerous than neurons in CNS. Major supporting cells for the CNS. Formation of a permeability barrier the blood and the neurons Phagocytize foreign substances. Produce CSF Form myelin sheaths around neurons
Neuroglia Cells
1. 2. 3. 4. Astrocytes Ependymal cells Microglia Oligodendrocytes
Myelin
Phospholipid that insulates axons electrically. Action potentials propagate quicker along myelinated axons versus unmyelinated axons. The membrane is tightly coiled around the axon with interruptions every 0.3 to 1.5mm these are called NODES OF RANVIER
Plasma Membrane
High concentration extracellularly
Sodium Chloride
Concentration Differences
1. Sodium-Potassium pump
Active transport against the concentration gradient. Approximately 3 sodium ions and two potassium ions are transported per ATP molecule.
Concentration Differences
2. Permeability characteristics of the plasma membrane
Nongated ion channels are always open and responsible for the resting membrane permeability. Gated ion channels open and close due to a stimulus.
Ligand gated ion channels molecule that binds to a receptor. Open and close in response to a ligand binding to a receptor. Voltage gated ion channels open and close in response to small voltage differences across the membrane.
Action Potential
Action Potential
Action Potential
Action Potential
Action Potential
Synapse
A junction between two cells where an action potential in one cell can cause the production of action potentials in another cell. Presynaptic cell - carries the action potential towards a synapse. Postsynaptic cell - carries the action potential away from the synapse.
Synapse
Synapse
Synapse
Postsynaptic Potentials
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane occurs due to neurotransmitters and their receptors. This is a local depolarization, that may reach threshold and produce an action potential and a response from the cell.
Postsynaptic Potentials
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) - occurs when the combination of neurotransmitter and its receptor results in a hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, the response is inhibitory.
IPSP decrease the likelihood of producing action potentials by moving the membrane potential farther from the threshold.
Neurotransmitters
The means by which each neuron communicates with others to process information and send messages. 1. Chemical synapses Specialized structures at terminal ends of axons and dendrites to release and receive chemical neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters
2. Synaptic Vesicles pre and postsynaptic membranes contain these tiny sacs, which contain many different neurotransmitters in the pre synaptic axon, and the postsynaptic dendrite contains many different receptor sites for the different neurotransmitters. 3. Synaptic cleft separates postsynaptic and pre synaptic neurons, fluid filled space approx. 30 to 50nm. Unidirectional communication between axons.
Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine
First to be identified Used in neuromuscular junctions and the CNS Degraded by acetylcholinesterase. Prolonged exposure of acetylcholine will result in neural frying.
Nerve gas Insecticides Snake venom
Neurotransmitters
2. Dopamine
CNS Autonomic system Involved in emotions/moods and regulation of motor control. Parkinsons is a degeneration of dopamine axons. Schizophrenia may be an increase in dopamine release and axons.
Neurotransmitters
3. Norepinephrine
Several areas of the CNS and the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Regulates sympathetic effectors; in the brain, involved in emotional responses. Arousal, dreaming. Release enhanced by amphetamines (speed), removal from postsynaptic cleft by cocaine.
Neurotransmitters
4. Serotonin
CNS Induction of sleep, sensory perception, temperature regulation, and control of mood. Drugs that block the reuptake of serotonin relieve anxiety and depression. May be responsible
Neurotransmitters
5. Histamine
Brain Involved in emotions, and regulation of body temperature, and water balance. Also released by white Blood Cells causing edema (swelling) and smooth muscle constriction
Neurotransmitters
6. Substance P
PNS Pain transmitter
7. Enkephalins
CNS, retina, and intestinal tract. Acts like opiates to block pain.
8. Endorphins
CNS, retina, and intestinal tract Memory, learning, sexual activity, temperature control. Decreased amount leads to depression.
The End