Thinkers & proponents on work, human processes and organisations

ORBR PGP1 2011

Frederick Taylor s
1. Study the ways jobs are performed now and determine new ways to do them.
Gather detailed time and motion information. Try different methods to see which is best.

2. Codify the new methods into rules.

Teach to all workers the new method.

3. Select workers whose skills match the rules. 4. Establish fair levels of performance and pay a premium for higher performance.
Workers should benefit from higher output.

Mary parker Follet

Organizations function on the principle of power "with" and not power "over. Holistic nature of community and advanced the idea of "reciprocal relationships" in understanding the dynamic aspects of the individual in relationship to others. Principle of integration, focuses on power sharing through negotiation and employee participation "win-win" solutions, community-based solutions, strength in human diversity, situational leadership, and a focus on process.

Max Weber
1. A formal hierarchical structure Each level controls the level below and is controlled by the level above. A formal hierarchy is the basis of central planning and centralized decision making. 2. Management by rules Controlling by rules allows decisions made at high levels to be executed consistently by all lower levels. 3. Organization by functional specialty Work is to be done by specialists, and people are organized into units based on the type of work they do or skills they have.

Max Weber
5. 4. An "up-focused" or "in-focused" mission Up focused means the organization's purpose is to serve the stockholders, the board, or whatever agency empowered it. In focused means the mission is to serve the organization itself, and those within it, e.g., to produce high profits, to gain market share, or to produce a cash stream. 6. Purposely impersonal To treat all employees equally and customers equally, and not be influenced by individual differences. 7. Employment based on technical qualifications Protection from arbitrary dismissal.

Henri Fayol
Authority. The right to issue commands, along with which must go the balanced responsibility for its function. Discipline. Employees must obey, but this is two-sided: employees will only obey orders if management play their part by providing good leadership. Unity of Command. Each worker should have only one boss with no other conflicting lines of command. Unity of Direction. People engaged in the same kind of activities must have the same objectives in a single plan. This is essential to ensure unity and coordination in the enterprise. Unity of command does not exist without unity of direction but does not necessarily flows from it.

Henri Fayol
Subordination of individual interest (to the general interest). Management must see that the goals of the firms are always paramount. Remuneration. Payment is an important motivator although by analyzing a number of possibilities. Centralization (or Decentralization). This is a matter of degree depending on the condition of the business and the quality of its personnel.

Henri Fayol
Scalar chain (Line of Authority). A hierarchy is necessary for unity of direction. But lateral communication is also fundamental, as long as superiors know that such communication is taking place. Scalar chain refers to the number of levels in the hierarchy from the ultimate authority to the lowest level in the organization. It should not be overstretched and consist of too-many levels. Order. Both material order and social order are necessary. The former minimizes lost time and useless handling of materials. The latter is achieved through organization and selection. Equity. In running a business a combination of kindliness and justice is needed. Treating employees well is important to achieve equity.

Henri Fayol
Stability of Tenure of Personnel. Employees work better if job security and career progress are assured to them. An insecure tenure and a high rate of employee turnover will affect the organization adversely. Initiative. Allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of strength for the organization. Esprit de Corps. Management must foster the morale of its employees. He further suggests that: real talent is needed to coordinate effort, encourage keenness, use each person s abilities, and reward each one s merit without arousing possible jealousies and disturbing harmonious relations.

Chester Barnard
The elements of the organization are
Communication. Willingness to Serve. A Common Purpose.

A Cooperative System includes physical, Biological, Personal, & Social Components. Strong role of leadership and the executive function

Rensis Likert
Exploitive authoritative system (1) The job of employees/subordinates is to abide by the decisions made by managers and those with a higher status than them in the organisation. The subordinates do not participate in the decision making. The organisation is concerned simply about completing the work. The organisation will use fear and threats to make sure employees complete the work set. There is no teamwork involved. Benevolent authoritative system (2) Decisions are made by those at the top of the organisation and management. However employees are motivated through rewards (for their contribution) rather than fear and threats. Information may flow from subordinates to managers but it is restricted to what management want to hear .

Rensis Likert
Consultative system (3) Subordinates are motivated by rewards and a degree of involvement in the decision making process. Management will constructively use their subordinates ideas and opinions. However involvement is incomplete and major decisions are still made by senior management. There is a greater flow of information (than in a benevolent authoritative system) from subordinates to management. Participative (group) system (4) Management has complete confidence in their subordinates/employees. There is lots of communication and subordinates are fully involved in the decision making process. Subordinates comfortably express opinions and there is lots of teamwork. Teams are linked together by people, who are members of more than one team. Likert calls people in more than one group linking pins . Employees throughout the organisation feel responsible for achieving the organisation s objectives. This responsibility is motivational especially as subordinates are offered economic rewards for achieving organisational goals which they have participated in setting.

Peter Drucker
Purpose and mission Productive work and worker achievement Social impact and responsibilities Time dimension decision and action Administration and entrepreneurship

Kurt Lewin
Organisational change Unfreeze Change Refreeze

Unfreeze
1. Determine what needs to change Survey the organization to understand the current state. Understand why change has to take place. 2. Ensure there is strong support from upper management Use Stakeholder Analysis and Stakeholder Management to identify and win the support of key people within the organization Frame the issue as one of organization-wide importance. 3. Create the need for change Create a compelling message as to why change has to occur Use your vision and strategy as supporting evidence Communicate the vision in terms of the change required Emphasize the why . 4. Manage and understand the doubts and concerns Remain open to employee concerns and address in terms of the need to change.

Change
1. Communicate often Do so throughout the planning and implementation of the changes Describe the benefits Explain exactly the how the changes will effect everyone Prepare everyone for what is coming. 2. Dispel rumoUrs Answer questions openly and honestly Deal with problems immediately Relate the need for change back to operational necessities. 3. Empower action Provide plenty of options for employee involvement Have line managers provide day to day direction. 4. Involve people in the process Generate short-term successes to reinforce the change Negotiate with external stakeholders as necessary (such as employee organizations).

Refreeze
1. Anchor the changes into the culture Identity what supports the change Identify barriers to sustaining change. 2. Develop ways to sustain the change Ensure leadership support Create a reward system Establish feedback systems Adapt the organizational structure as necessary. 3. Provide support and training Keep everyone informed and supported. 4. Celebrate success!

Peter Senge
Fifth discipline
Systems thinking Personal mastery Mental models Building shared vision Team learning

Hawthorne studies 1925s

Sponsored by the Western Electric Conducted by a team of researchers
Elton Mayo Fritz Roesthelisberger

At the Hawthorne works , an industrial manufacturig facility in Illionois) for a seven year period.

Hawthorne studies 1925s

Experiments in illumination
Tried to understand the effect of varied illumination levels on productivity of workers. Found that productivity increased and decreased in experimental and control groups. No linear relationship between illumination and productivity Speculation on the observer effect : The Hawthorne effect

Hawthorne studies 1925s

The relay assembly test room study
Work room temperatures and humidity Work schedule Rest breaks Food consumption

No pattern observed; new thought and speculation The researchers suspected that employee attitudes and sentiments were critical variables that were not previously taken into account.

Hawthorne studies 1925s

Experiments in interviewing workers
About 20,000 workers interviewed No preconcieved hypothesis Sympathetic and skill ful listening to workers Formulation of guidelines for interviewing and practical listening skills

The discovery of the informal organisation and its relationship to the formal organisation begins. A revelation of the social, interpersonal dynamics of people at work

Hawthorne studies 1925s

Behavioural norms set by the work group has a powerful influence over the productivity of the group Power of the peer group on individual behaviour and productivity is realised.

The Hawthorne effect

People s knowledge that they are being studied leads them to modify their behaviour.

1990s
Martin Seligman s positive psychology of hope and strength

2000s
Fred Luthan s framework of positive organisational behaviour
Focus on enhancing the strengths of individuals Positive Psychology movement David Cooperrider, Martin Seligman among others Movements like Appreciative Inquiry being used for Organisational change

OCTAPACE- on organisational culture

O--- openness C--- confrontation T--- trust A---autonomy P--- proaction A--- authenticity C--- collaboration E--- experimentation