What Are Allelochemicals?

Literally Compounds that have allelopathic impact Ecologically Plant based chemicals that upon release into environment affect the growth of other plants. An array of non-nutritional chemicals produced by living organisms that affect growth, health, behaviour or population biology of other species Generally They are considered as Natural Toxins

The term was first used by Whittaker in 1970

Allelochemicals
The term basically applied plantplant interactions but is also being expanded to include complex delicate interactions between plantinsect, plant-microbe and plantanimal interactions.

Allelochemicals - the Terminology Impasse

Other terms with similar meaning
Semiochemicals Koline Phytoncide Phytoinhibitins Plant Eco-chemicals

Allelochemicals - Characteristics
Natural plant products exhibiting diversity in chemical nature and structure They are synthesized in plants as Secondary Metabolites Within plants they are localized / sequestered in specialized organs May be present in any plant part
Contd.

Allelochemicals - Characteristics
The toxicity of allelochemicals towards other plants is a function of

concentration, age of plants, metabolic stage under given set of environmental conditions.
Their actions are often synergistic.

Factors Affecting Allelochemicals

Abiotic Biotic
Moisture Stress, Heat, Light, Nutrient Deficiencies, Soil Organics, Habitat Disease Infections, Herbivores, Plant age, Competitive Interference, Anthropogenic sources like herbicides and other chemicals.

Fate of Allelochemicals in Soil

Soil is a complex environment Accumulation depends upon biotic and abiotic factors. Generally undergo Sorption or transformation (more toxic or less toxic)microbial or non microbial. May be reversibly or irreversibly bound to soil particles or may remain in free state. Free form or Reversibly bound allelochemicals - much ecological significance

Allelochemicals Synthesis
Synthesized through many pathways such as: Shikimic Acid Pathway Malonic Acid Pathway Mevalonic acid Pathway 3-PGA / Pyruvate Pathway

Allelochemicals Chemical Diversity

Simple water-soluble organic acids Simple unsaturated lactones Long-chain fatty acids and polyacetylenes Naphthoquinone, anthroquinones and complex quinones Simple phenols Benzoic acid and derivates Cinnamic acid and derivates Flavonoids Contd.

Allelochemicals Chemical Diversity

Tannins Terpenoids and steroids Alkaloids and cyanohydrins Coumarins

Thiocyanates

Broadly - they are categorized as Plant phenolics and terpenoids

Modes of Release of Allelochemicals

Leachation Volatilization - permeate in air or are
solubilized in aqueous phase of the soil

Root Exudation Microbial decomposition

Added to Soil Matrix

Sources of Allelochemicals
Virtually all plant parts - Leaves, Stem, Roots, Inflorescence, Buds, Flowers. However, leaves are the consistent source of allelochemicals whereas roots usually possess lesser amount.

Allelochemicals within Plants

Structural and Physiological Functions.
Role in Lignification Plant Defense against herbivores and pathogen Reproductive Fitness

Allelochemicals Mode of Action

Direct
Various processes of plant growth and metabolism

Indirect
Alteration of Soil Properties Nutritional Status Changes in the activity of microbial / nematode populations

Allelochemicals Mode of Action

Direct
Mineral uptake Cytology and Ultrastructure Phytohormone Balance Photosynthesis Respiration Membrane Permeability Enzyme Activity Protein Synthesis

Molecular target sites of Some Allelochemicals

Allelochemical Molecular Target Site

1,4 Cineole - Asparagine synthetase Sorgoleone - D-1 protein of Photosystem II Tricolorin A - Plasma membrane ATPase Leptospermone - 4-hydroxy phenylpyruvate dioxygenase

Combination of Allelochemicals
Allelochemicals generally act in combination and not in isolation Efforts should not be therefore focussed on the isolation and identification of just a single allelochemical. Juglone found in Walnut is perhaps one of the rare exception in this regard.

Allelochemicals Ecological Roles

In General allelochemicals affect Vegetational Patterning Succession and Invasion Community Structure and Functions Population Dynamics Biodiversity Seed Protectants and Prevention of Seed Decay

Allelochemicals in Agriculture

Interference with crops Soil Sickness Deterioration of Soil Quality Effect on Nitrification

Applications of Allelochemicals
Natural Herbicides Natural pesticides

Biofumigants
Growth Regulators

Allelochemicals in Forestry
In forestry Allelochemicals play an important role in regeneration of tree species, understorey dynamics and nutrient cycling etc.

Allelochemicals in Fresh water Environment

Allelochemicals play an important role in determining community structure, dominance, resource partitioning and succession. These are produced by the phytoplankters especially in the the eutrophic and mesotrophic fresh water bodies. Examples: Algae, Cyanobacteria and Macrophytes

Allelochemicals in Marine Ecosystems

In marine ecosystems.

Often the toxic blooms, red tides, brown tides are associated with the presence of in situ allelochemicals

Allelochemicals in Grasslands Changes in species composition Fodder scarcity Loss of species diversity, dominance and richness

Allelochemicals in Horticulture
Replant Problem Soil Sickness
Examples: Apple (Malus pumila Miller) and Peach (Prunus persica [L.] Batsch) Reason: Allelochemical accumulation in soil

Allelochemicals in Weed Management

Volatile Essential oils Sesquiterpene lactones Benzoxazinoids Glucosinolates - Cineole - Parthenin - BOA - Isothiocyanates - Ailanthone - Sorgoleone

Quassinoids Benzoquinone

Allelochemicals as Growth Regulators

Parthenin Artemisinin Cnisin
& several other sesquiterpene lactones

Strategies for the Discoveries of Allelochemicals

Ethnobotanical Approach Chemical Ecology Approach Anatomical clues

Tools for determining chemical nature

Bioassay Directed Isolation, Analytical Instrumentation, Informatics Fractionation - driven bioassays

Allelochemicals as Natural Pesticides and Biofumigants

Glucosinolates AITC, BITC, PEITC Hydroxamic acids - DIMBOA Saponins alfalfa saponins

Allelochemicals as Lead Compounds for the synthesis of New Herbicides/ Pesticides Natural Product 1,4 cineole Leptospermone Bezoxazines Qionolinic acid Herbicide Cinmethylin Triketones Banzanin Quinclorac

Allelochemicals as Natural Signals

Allelochemicals are fast being recognized as chemical signals These signals have practical utility in the weed management programmes Example Sorgoleone from Sorghum sp. for the control of parasitic weeds.

What is Allelopathy?
Term coined by Hans Molisch, a German Botanist in 1937 using two Greek words allelo and pathos meaning mutual suffering.

But observed by Theophrastus (ca. 300 BC), Plinus Secundus (1 AD), de Candolle (1832).

Allelopathy - Definition
Rice (1984) defined it as any direct or

indirect effect (stimulatory or inhibitory) of one plant (including microbes) through production of chemical compounds released in the environment.

What are Allelochemicals?

Chemicals released by the plants into the immediate environment, that bring about the suppression / inhibition of the surrounding vegetation.

Variety of Chemical nature, e.g. phenolic, flavonoids, terpenoids, quinones, etc.