CHAPTER 5

FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS

CONTENTS
5.1 Ferrous alloys 5.1.1 Steel Low carbon Medium carbon High carbon Stainless steel Tool steel
Low alloys

High alloys

5.1.2 Cast iron White Gray Ductile (a.k.a. nodular) Malleable

5.2 Nonferrous alloys 5.2.1 Aluminium and its alloys 5.2.2 Copper and its alloys 5.2.3 Titanium and its alloys 5.2.4 Magnesium and its alloys

OBJECTIVE
After completing this chapter, students should be able to :

Differentiate the differences between ferrous and nonferrous metals.

Describe the characteristics of white, gray, ductile and malleable cast irons. Understand the properties and applications of metals and its alloys.
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5.0 CLASSIFICATION OF METAL ALLOYS

Cu Al Mg

Ti

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Figure : Classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys.

Metals can be divided into two categories :

1) Ferrous - Metals contain iron. - E.g : steels and cast iron. - Metals tend to have a higher chance of corrosion. 2) Nonferrous - Metals contain no iron. - E.g : Cu, Al, Mg, Ti. - Metals have a much higher resistance to corrosion. Advantages of Ferrous alloys over Non-Ferrous alloys: Generally greater strength. Generally greater stiffness. Better for welding. The advantages of Non-Ferrous alloys over ferrous alloys: Good resistance to corrosion. Casting and cold working processes and are often easier. High ductility. Higher thermal and electrical conductivities. Colors.

Note : The word ferrous is derived from the Latin term "Ferrum" which means "containing iron".

5.1 FERROUS ALLOYS

Definition : Those of which iron is the prime constituent.

Advantages : 1. Iron ores exist in abundant quantities within the earths crust. 2. Economical extraction, refining and fabrication techniques are available. 3. Versatile material : wide range of mechanical and physical properties.
Disadvantages : 1. Tends to corrode. 2. High density. 3. Low electrical conductivity. The ferrous alloys are classified based on the percentage of carbon present in the ferrous. E.g : Steel <2.14%C and Cast iron 2.14 6.7%C. Application : As engineering construction materials.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS

5.1.1 STEEL

Carbon content Microstructure Properties

: < 1%C. : Normally ferrite. : Relatively soft and weak but good ductility and toughness. : Low alloys and high alloys.

Categories

Classification by carbon content : Low , medium and high carbon type. Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no/minimum content is specified for chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for :
Copper Manganese Silicon : Not exceed 0.40%. : Not exceed 1.65%. : Not exceed 0.60%.

LOW ALLOY : LOW CARBON STEEL

Composition Microstructure Properties : Less than ~ 0.25%C. : Ferrite and pearlite. : Relatively soft and weak, but possess high ductility and toughness. Other features : Moderately priced, machinable and weldable. Applications : Auto-body components, structural shapes, sheets etc.
Plain carbon steels: - Residual concentration of impurities are unresponsible to heat treatment.
Advantages of low carbon steel: Good formability. Good weldability. Low cost. Rated at 5560% machinability.

High-strength low alloy (HSLA) steels: - Up to 10 wt% of alloying elements, such as Mn, Cr, Cu, V, Ni, Mo can be strengthened by heat-treatment.
Examples of HSLA Steels: Weathering steels, exhibit superior atmospheric corrosion resistance Control-rolled steels, has a highly deformed austenite structure that transforms to a very fine equiaxed ferrite structure on cooling. Pearlite-reduced steels, strengthened by very fine-grain ferrite and precipitation hardening with a little or no pearlite in the microstructure. Microalloyed steels, with very small additions of Ni, V and/or Ti for refinement of grain size and/or precipitation hardening. Acicular ferrite steel, very low carbon steels with sufficient hardenability to transform on cooling to a very 9 fine high-strength acicular ferrite structure.

LOW ALLOY : MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Composition Processing : 0.25<Co<0.6%C. : Increasing the carbon content to approximately 0.5% with an accompanying increase in manganese allows medium carbon steels to be used in the quenched and tempered condition. : Typically tempered martensite. : Stronger than low-carbon steels, but in expense of ductility and toughness. : Couplings, forgings, gears, crankshafts other high-strength structural components. Steels in the 0.40 to 0.60% C range are also used for rails, railway wheels and rail axles.

Microstructure Properties Applications

Advantages: Machinability is 60-70% .Both hot and cold rolled steels machine better when annealed. Good toughness and ductility Fair formability Responds to heat treatment but often used in natural condition.
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LOW ALLOY : HIGH CARBON STEEL

Composition Properties Application : Contain from 0.60 to 1.00%C with manganese contents ranging from 0.30 to 0.90%. : Hardest, strongest, least ductile of the carbon steel : 1) Used for withstanding wear. 2) A holder for a sharp cutting edge. E.g : drills, woodworking tools, axes, turning and planning tools, milling cutters, knives. 3) Used for spring materials, high-strength wires, cutting tools, and etc.

Advantages: 1. High hardness. 2. High wear resistance. 3. Fair formability. Disadvantages: 1. Low toughness and formability. 2. Not recommended for welding. - Usually joined by brazing with low temperature silver alloy making it possible to repair or fabricate tool steel parts without affecting their heat treated 11 condition.

LOW ALLOY STEELS : CONCLUSION

Low carbon steel
Less than 0.25%C. Easy machining and forming. Comparatively less strength. Least expensive. Comparatively less hardness. Largest quantity produced.

Medium carbon steel High carbon steel

0.25%C 0.6%C. Hard and strong after heat treating; medium depth of hardness. More expensive than low carbon steel.

0.6%C-1.00%C. Hard and strong after heat treating; depth of hardness increases. More expensive than low and medium carbon steel.

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HIGH ALLOY : STAINLESS STEEL

The primarily alloying element is Chromium (11%). Others element : Nickel, Manganese, Molybdenum.

Highly resistance to corrosion.

Three major classes: (a) Austenitic (b) Ferritic (c) Martensitic a) Austenitic stainless steel
18%Cr, 8%Ni, < 0.15%C. Non magnetic properties. Hardened and strengthened by cold work. Shock resistant. Highly corrosion resistant because high Cr and addition of Ni. -Fe microstructure at room temperature. Fcc structure. Stable only above 910C. Stabilized in stainless steel by addition of Ni extremely corrosion resistant and not magnetic.
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b) Ferritic
12-25%Cr, < 0.1%C. Magnetic properties. Hardened and strengthened by cold work. High resistance to corrosion but low impact. Fe bcc structure. Not so corrosion resistant as austenitic stainless steel but less expensive magnetic steel.

c) Martensitic Magnetic properties.

BCT structure. Produced by rapid quenching. Posses high yield strength and low ductility.

Applications of stainless steel : Cookware, chemical and food processing equipment.

Decorative trim, nozzles. Turbine blades, steam boilers, parts in heating furnaces. Springs, pump rings, aircraft fittings. Temporary implant devices such as fractures plates, screw and hip nails. The best choice for the walls of a steam boiler because it is corrosion resistant to the steam and condensate.
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HIGH ALLOY : TOOL STEEL

Provide the necessary hardness with simpler heat-treatment and retain this hardness at high temperature. The primary alloying elements are : Mo, W and Cr. High carbon steel alloys that have been designed to prevent wear resistance and toughness combined with high strength. Have excess carbides (carbon alloys) which make them hard and wear resistant. Most tool steels are used in a heat treated state generally hardened and tempered.

Applications : 1) Gauges, shear knives, punches, chisels, cams, mould for die casting. 2) Best choice for a drill bit because it is very hard and wear resistant and thus will retain a sharp cutting edge.
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5.1.2 CAST IRON

Carbon contents Si content : Greater than 2.14wt% C. : 0.5-3wt%Si (silicon is used to control kinetics of carbide formation).

Commercial range

: 3.0-4.5 wt% C + other alloying elements.

Properties

: 1) Low melting points (1150-1300C).

- Do not formed undesirable surface films when poured, and undergo moderate shrinkage during solidification. Thus can be easily melted and amenable to casting.

2) Some cast iron are brittle. Microstructure : Most commonly graphite (C) & ferrite.
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Advantages :
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Low tooling and production cost. Ready availability. Good machinability without burring. Readily cast into complex shapes. High inherent damping. Excellent wear resistance and high hardness.

Types of cast irons : White

Gray Ductile Malleable

The differences between cast irons and steels : 1) Carbon content. 2) Silicon content. 3) Carbon microstructure (stable form and unstable form). Properties of cast irons are defined by the amount and microstructure of existing carbon phase.

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WHITE CAST IRONS

Composition : 2.5 < Co < 4.0%C and Si<1%. Microstructure : Pearlite and cementite (due to rapid cooling).

High rate of cooling prevent graphite. An intermediate metal for the production of malleable cast iron. Properties: 1) Very hard but brittle. 2) Not weldable compare to gray cast iron. 3) When it is annealed, it become malleable cast iron. 4) Not easily machinable. 5) Fracture surface: white appearance.

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THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF WHITE CAST IRONS

Pearlite

Fe3C (Light regions)

Figure : Light Fe3C regions surrounded by pearlite.

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GRAY CAST IRONS

Composition Microstructure : Carbon content: 2.5-4.0 wt% C and Silicon content: 1.0-3.0wt% Si. : Graphite flakes surrounded by ferrite or pearlite matrix. The formation of graphite occurs because of the cooling rate is too slow where austenite in unstable position and brake down to give graphite microstructure. Properties : 1) Very effective in damping vibrational energy. 2) High wear resistance. 3) Low shrinkage in mould due to formation of graphite flakes. 4) Cheap. 5) Easy to machine. 6) Low melting temperature (1140-1200C). 7) Ability to take good casting impressions. 8) High damping capacity. 9) A reasonable tensile strength of 108.340 N/mm. 10) High compressive strength. 11) Good thermal conductivity. :1) Weak and brittle in tension. - Due to the pointed and sharp end of graphite flake.

Disadvantages

Applications

: Base choice for milling machine base because it effectively absorbs vibration and cheap.

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THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF GRAY CAST IRONS

Graphite flakes

Figure : Dark graphite flakes in a-Fe matrix.

* Graphite flakes shows fracture surface (gray appearance).

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DUCTILE (or NODULAR) CAST IRONS

Ductile or Nodular cast iron : Small addition of Magnesium or/and Cerium to the gray iron composition before casting (in order to prevent the formation of graphite flakes during the slow cooling of the iron). Microstructure : Nodular or spherical-like graphite structure in pearlite or ferritic matrix.

Properties

: 1) Significant increase in material ductility. 2) Tensile strength > grey cast iron. 3) Others mech props steel.
: Valves, pump bodies, gear and other automotive and machine components.

Applications

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THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF DUCTILE (or NODULAR) CAST IRONS

Graphite nodules (a.k.a. spherical-like)

Figure : Dark graphite nodules in -Fe matrix.

* Note that the carbon is in the shape of small sphere, not flakes.

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THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF MALLEABLE CAST IRONS

Produced by the heat treatment of white cast iron. Heating white cast iron at temperature 800C to 900C for 50 hours (means 2 or 3 days) in neutral atmosphere (means heating environment) causes a decomposition of cementite, forming graphite in the form of cluster/rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix depending on cooling rate. Microstructure Properties : A clumps of graphite (rossette) in ferrite or pearlite matrix. : 1) Similar to nodular cast iron and give higher strength. 2) More ductile and malleability.

Applications : Pipe fittings, valve parts for railroad, marine and other heavy duty.

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THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF MALLEABLE CAST IRONS

Graphite rosettes

Figure : Dark graphite rosettes in -Fe matrix.

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TYPES OF CAST IRONS : CONCLUSION

There are four general types of cast irons:
1. White iron has a characteristics white, crystalline fracture surface. Large amount of Fe3C are formed during casting, giving hard brittle material. 2. Gray iron has a gray fracture surface with finely faced structure. A large Si content (2-3 wt %) promotes C flakes precipitation rather than carbide. 3. Ductile iron : small addition (0.05 wt.%) of Mg to gray iron changes the flake C microstructure to spheroidal that increases (by factor ~20) steel ductility. 4. Malleable iron : traditional form of cast iron with reasonable ductility. First cast to white iron and then heat-treated to produce nodular graphite precipitates.

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5.2 NONFERROUS ALLOYS

Definition : 1) Those of which iron is not the prime constituent; or 2) Metals which do not have iron as the base element. The nonferrous metals/alloys are not based on iron and include of alloy such as : Al, Cu, Ti, Zn, Ni, Co, tungsten, precious metals and refractory metals. These alloys can be divided into four class : 1) Cast alloys. 2) Wrought alloys. 3) Heat treatable. 4) Non-heat treatable. Advantages: Lower density. Comparatively high electrical conductivity. Good corrosion resistance. Mostly lower melting points (casting).
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TYPES OF NONFERROUS ALLOYS

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5.2.1 ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Properties/Characteristics : 1) Appearance. - Silvery white metal. 2) Very light (relatively low density 2.7 g/cm3). - Suitable for making light weigh vehicle, vessels and other. 3) High corrosion resistant. - Al naturally produces a fine oxidized surface film which protect it from corrode. 4) High electrical and thermal conductivities. - Second to copper. 5) Non toxic. - Widely used as packing materials (food). 6) High ductility. - Al alloys that have FCC structure with (12) slip systems and thus high ductility.

Disadvantages : 1) Difficult to weld. 2) Prone to severe spring back. 3) Abrasive to tooling. 4) Expensive than steel. 5) Low melting point 660oC.

Applications : Used in applications that required lightness, high corrosion resistance, electrical and thermal conductivities. E.g : cooking utensil, container, appliances, building materials and etc. 29

Aluminium alloys can be divided into 2 groups : 1) Wrought alloys - It is used for a material that is suitable for shaping by working process. - E.g. forging, extrusion, rolling. 2) Cast alloys - It is used for a material that is suitable for shaping by casting process. - E.g : die casting. Both wrought alloys and cast alloys can be divided into two groups :

Aluminum alloys group

Wrought aluminum alloys Heat treatable Nonheat-treatable Cast aluminum alloys Heat treatable Nonheat-treatable

1) Alloys which are not heat treatable. - An alloy which cannot be improved by heat treatment. 2) Alloys which are heat treatable -An alloy whose mechanical strength is improved by

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Heat treatable wrought alloys

The properties changed by heat treatment. Common alloys addition are copper, zinc and silicon. E.g : 4% Cu, 0.8% Mg, 0.5% Si, 0.7% Mn and 94% Al is known as Duralumin. The heat treatment process used is quenching and then precipitation hardening at room temperature for about 4 days. This alloys is widely used in aircraft, bodywork. Applications : Aircraft, bodywork, ladders, container bodies etc.

Non Heat treatable wrought alloys

Do not respond to heat treatment but have their properties controlled by the extent of the working to which they are subjected. Common alloys addition are aluminium(Al) with manganese(Mn). The effect of manganese is to increase the tensile strength of aluminium. E.g : Al-Mn alloys with 1.25% Mn. Applications : Kitchen utensil, tubing, constructional material for boats and ship.

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Heat treatable cast alloys

The addition of Cu, Mg to Al alloys enable the alloys to be heat treated to give a high strength casting materials.

Non Heat treatable cast alloys

An alloy used in the casting process should no shrink too much and shrinking should no result in fracture. E.g. : Aluminium(Al) with 9 to13% Silicon(Si) which is commonly used for many casting in cars. The addition of Si to Al will increase its fluidity for casting purposes. Applications : Oil sumps, gear boxes, radiators.

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Types of Aluminium alloys

Aluminum - Copper Alloys (2xxx series) Aluminum - Manganese Alloy (3xxx series) Aluminum - Silicon Alloys (4xxx series) Aluminum - Magnesium Alloys (5xxx series) Aluminum - Silicon Magnesium Alloys (6xxx series) Aluminum - Zinc Alloys (7xxx series) Aluminum - Lithium (8xxx series)

Aluminum zinc-magnesium-copper alloys Highest strength of all aluminium alloys. Mainly for aircraft structure.

Aluminum-copper-magnesium-silicon alloys (duralumin) For many general engineering and aircraft structural purpose. Most widely used as rivets in aircraft construction. Higher strength than aluminium-magnesium silicide alloys but lower corrosion resistance. 33 Good fracture toughness, service temperature up to 120C.

Aluminium-silicon and aluminium-silicon copper alloys Excellent fluidity and castability. Lighter than Al-Cu alloys. Widely used for automobile casting- water-cooled manifolds, jackets, motor housing. Pump parts in chemical and dye industries. Addition of copper increase strength and machinability but lowers castability, corrosion resistance and ductility. Aluminium-magnesium alloy Highly resistant to corrosion, higher machinability. Superior alloy for marine environment marine craft fittings. Aluminium-copper alloy Mainly used for aircraft casting part. Good mechanical properties and shock resistance. Moderate corrosion resistance.

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5.2.2 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Most common alloying element : Properties/Characteristics : Zn, Al, Sn and Ni. 1) Appearance : Reddish metal of bright luster. 2) Soft. Further addition of second element . 3) Ductile. Increase hardness 4) Unlimited cold working capacity. and brittleness and reduce the 5) High electrical and heat conductivity. toughness. 6) Melting point = 1083C. E.g. : Brasses, bronzes, copper7) Durability nickel, copper-zinc-nickel, - Copper is strong and durable. aluminium bronze. 8) Recyclable. - Over 90% of copper is recyclable. 9) Excellent corrosion resistance. - Not only at their surrounding but also to many different fluid, liquid and gas. 10) Safe. - Copper is a natural materials. It is used to make drinking vessel, pipes and water containers. No other plumbing material can beat coppers superb health record. 11) Relatively high strength.

Disadvantages : 1) Difficult to machine. 2) Expensive.

Figure : Radiator.

Applications : Jet aircraft landing gear bearing, radiator parts for cars and trucks, surgical and dental instruments.35

5.2.3 TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Properties/Characteristics :
1) Excellent Corrosion Resistance. - Titanium is immune to corrosive attack by salt water or marine atmospheres. - It also exhibits exceptional resistance to a broad range of acids, alkalis, natural waters and industrial chemicals. Therefore, it is widely used in chemical industries. 2) Superior Erosion Resistance. - Titanium offers superior resistance to erosion, cavitation or impingement attack. Titanium is at least 20 times more erosion resistant than the copper-nickel alloys. 3) High Heat Transfer Efficiency. - Under "in service" conditions, the heat transfer properties of titanium approximate those of admiralty brass and copper-nickel. 4) Hard, smooth surface that limit adhesion of foreign materials. 5) Melting point = 1670C. Ideal for used in components which operate at elevated temperature 6) Density = 4.51 g/cm. especially where large strength to weight ratio is required. 7) High strength. - Alloys with strength up to 1200MPa are used in a wide variety of airframe applications from small fasteners weighing a few grams to landing gear trucks and large wing beams weighing up to 1 ton. 8) Electrical and thermal conductivity steel.
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Disadvantages : 1) Very expensive. - Difficulties in extraction and formation of material. 2) Not available in the large quantities needed.
Example of Titanium alloys : 1) Alloy Ti-5Al-2,5Sn is designed for weldability. 2) Alloys Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn, Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al for high strength at low-to-moderate temperatures.

Low strength when pure but alloying gives a considerable increase in strength.

Most common alloying elements : Aluminium (to refine grain size), Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Vanadium, Copper (to harden), etc.

Applications Titanium and its alloys have proven to be technically superior and cost-effective materials of construction for a wide variety of aerospace, industrial, marine and commercial applications.

It is also capable of operating at temperatures from sub zero to 600C which are used in engines for discs, blades, shafts and for lightly loaded fabrications such as plug and nozzle assemblies.
Best choice for high speed aircraft because they are light weight, strong and easily fabricated.

Computers, automobiles, aeroengines.

Used as surgical implant due to its total resistance to attack by body fluids, high strength, low density and corrosion resistant. Example : Hip joints, bone screws, knee joints, bone plates, 37 dental implants and surgical devices.

Figure : E.g : Titanium makes up to 10% of empty weight of aircraft such as the Boeing 777.

Figure: Titanium Integrally Bladed Rotor Fan Disc.

Figure : Titanium Rotor Compressor. Figure : Surgical implant.

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5.2.4 MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Magnesium is the third most commonly used structural metal, following steel and aluminium. Magnesium alloys are utilized in engineering design mainly because of their high strength-weight ratios, excellent machinability, and relatively low cost on a piece basis. Used as alloying element in Al, Zn, Pb and other nonferrous metal. Used as magnesium anodes: effective corrosion protection for water heaters, underground pipelines, ship hulls.

Properties/Characteristics : 1) Density = 1.7 g/cm3. - Two thirds of Aluminium. 2) Melting point = 627oC. 3) Appearance : Silvery white. 4) Ductile. 5) Relatively soft. 6) Light weight 7) Good to excellent corrosion resistance 8) Very high strength-to density ratio.
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Applications:
In aerospace applications (e.g. : aircraft) because they are lightweight and exhibit good strength and stiffness at both room and elevated temperatures. Automotive applications include clutch and brake pedal support brackets, steering column lock housings (because strong and light). E.g : Porsche used magnesium alloy for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage. Used in electronic devices. - Due to low weight, good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is widely used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop computers, cameras and etc.

Fireworks because it ignites easily and burns readily in air.

When used as an alloying agent, this metal improves the mechanical, fabrication and welding characteristics of aluminium.

Figure : Magnesium Clutch Side Casing

Figure : Formula 1 gearbox casting

Figure : Products made of magnesium: firestarter and shavings, sharpener, 40 magnesium ribbon

FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS PowerPoint.

THE END
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