Prolog Programming

Prolog Programming
DATA STRUCTURES IN PROLOG

PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES
CONTROL IN PROLOG CUTS

DATA STRUCTURES IN PROLOG

Lists in Prolog

List notation is a way of writing terms Terms as Data Term correspond with list

Lists in Prolog
The simplest way of writing a list is to

enumerate its elements.

The list consisting of the 3 atoms a, b and c can be written as [a, b, c] The list that doesnt have elements called empty list denoted as [ ]

Lists in Prolog
We can also specify an initial sequence of

elements and a trailing list, separated by |

The list [a, b, c] can also be written as [a, b, c | [ ] ] [a, b | [c] ] [a | [b, c] ]

Lists : Head & Tail

A special case of this notation is a list with

head H and tail T, written as [H|T] The head is the first element of a list, and The tail is the list consisting of the remaining elements.
The list [a, b, c] can also be separated as Head:The first element is a Tail:The list of remaining elements = [b, c]
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Lists : Unification
Unification can be used to extract the

components of a list, so explicit operators for extracting the head and tail are not needed. The solution of the query
?- [H | T] = [a, b, c]. H = a T = [b, c]

Bind variable H to the head and variable T to

the tail of list [a, b, c].

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Lists : Specified terms

The query (partially specified terms)
?- [a | T] = [H, b, c]. T = [b, c] H = a

The term [ a | T ] is a partial specification of a

list with head a and unknown tail denoted by variable T. Similarly, [ H, b, c] is a partial specification of a list with unknown head H and tail [b, c]. These two specification to unify H = a, T =[b,c]
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Lists in Prolog
Example 2 The append relation on lists is

defined by the following rules:

Append([ ], Y, Y). Append([H | X], Y, [H | Z]) :- append(X,Y,Z).

In words, The result of appending the empty list [ ] and a list Y is Y. If the result of appending X and Y is Z, then the result of appending [H | X] and Y is [H | Z]

Lists : Compute Arguments

The rules for append can be used to compute

any one of the arguments from the other two:

?- append([a, b], [c, d], Z). Z = [a, b, c, d] ?- append([a, b], Y, [a, b, c, d]). Y = [c, d] ?- append(X, [c, d], [a, b, c, d]). X = [a, b]

Inconsistent arguments are rejected

?- append(X, [d, c], [a, b, c, d]). no
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Terms as Data
The Dot operator or functor . corresponds to

make list with H and T.

.(H,T)

[H | T ] is syntactic sugar for the term .(H,T) Lists are terms. The term for the list [a, b, c] is
.(a, .(b, .(c, [])))

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Terms as Data
following terms can be drawn a tree
.(a, .(b, .(c, [])))

a b

c []

There is a one-to-one correspondence

between trees and terms

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Terms : Binary Tree

Binary trees can be written as terms

An atom leaf for a leaf A functor nonleaf with 2 arguments

leaf nonleaf(nonleaf(leaf,leaf),leaf)

nonleaf(leaf,leaf)

nonleaf(leaf,nonleaf(leaf,leaf))

nonleaf(nonleaf(leaf,leaf), nonleaf(leaf,leaf))

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List : tree
Example 3 A binary search tree is either

empty, or it consists of a node with two binary search trees as subtrees.

Each node holds an integer. Smaller elements appear in the left subtree of a node and larger elements appear in the right subtree. Let a term node(K,S,T) represent a tree
K S T

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Binary search trees

15 2 16 2 10 12

0
9 3

10
12

19

0
3

9
15

16
3

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Binary search trees

The rules define a relation member to test

whether an integer appear at some node in a tree. The two arguments of member are an integer and a tree.
member(K,_,_). member(K, node(N,S,_)) :- K < N, member(K, S). member(K, node(N,_,T)) :- K > N, member(K, T).

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PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES
The strengths of Prolog namely, backtracking

and unification.

Backtracking allows a solution to be found if one exists Unification allows variables to be used as placeholders for data to be filled in later.

Careful use of the techniques in this section

can lead to efficient programs. The programs rely on left-to-right evaluation of subgoals.
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Guess and Verify

A guess-and-verify query has the form
Is there an S such that guess(S) and verify(S)?

Where guess(S) and verify(S) are subgoals. Prolog respond to a query by generating solutions to guess(S) until a solution satisfying verify(S) is found. Such queries are also called generate-and-test queries.

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Guess and Verify

Similarly, a guess-and-verify rule has the

following form:
Conslusion() if guess(,S,) and verify(,S,)

Example
overlap(X, Y) :- member(M, X), member(M, Y).

Two lists X and Y overlap if there is some M that is a member of both X and Y. The first goal member(M, X) guesses an M from list X, and the second goal member(M, Y) verifies that M also appears in list Y. 19

 The rules for member are

member(M, [M |_]). Member(M, [_ |T]) :- member(M, T).

The first rule says that M is a member of a list with head M. The second rule says that M is a member of a list if M is a member of its tail T.

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Consider query
These query
?- overlap([a,b,c,d],[1,2,c,d]). yes

?- member(M,[a,b,c,d]),member(M,[1,2,c,d]).

The first goal in this query generates

solutions and the second goal tests to see whether they are acceptable.
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Consider query
The solutions generated by the first goal are
?- member(M,[a,b,c,d]). M = a; M = b; M = c; M = d; no

Test the second goal

?- member(a,[1,2,c,d]). no ?- member(b,[1,2,c,d]). no ?- member(c,[1,2,c,d]). yes

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Hint
Since computation in Prolog proceeds from

left to right, the order of the subgoals in a guess-and-verify query can affect efficiency. Choose the subgoal with fewer solutions as the guess goal. Example of the effect of goal order
?- X = [1,2,3], member(a,X). no ?- member(a,X), X = [1,2,3]). [infinite computation]
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Variables as Placeholders in Terms

Variables have been used in rules and

queries but not in terms representing objects. Terms containing varibales can be used to simulate modifiable data structures; The variables serve as placeholders for subterms to be filled in later.

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Represent Binary Trees in Terms

The terms leaf and nonleaf(leaf,leaf)

are completely specified.

leaf

nonleaf(leaf,leaf)

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Partially specified list

The example list [a, b | X] has

Its first element : a Its second element : b Do not yet know what X represents

Open list if its ending in a variable, referred

end marker variable Close list if it is not open.

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How prolog know variable

Prolog used machine-generated variables,

written with a leading underscore (_) followed by an integer.

?- L = [a, b | X]. L = [a, |_G172] X = _G172 Yes

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 Prolog generates fresh variables each time it

responds to a query or applies a rule. An open list can be modified by unifying its end marker

?- L = [a, b | X], X = [c,Y]. L = [a,b,c |_G236] X = [c,_G236] Y = _G236 Yes

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 Extending an open list by unifying its end

marker.

X
_172

X
_236

(a) Before X is bound.

(b) After X = [c | Y].

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 Unification of an end-marker variable is akin

to an assignment to that variable. List L changes from [a, b | _172] [a, b, c | _236] when _172 unifies with [c | _236] Advantage of working with open lists is that the end of a list can be accessed quickly.

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Open list implement queues

q(L,E)
when a queue is created, where L is an open list with end marker E

enter(a,Q,R)
When element a enters queue Q, we get queue R.

leave(a,Q,R)
When element a leaves queue Q, we get queue R.
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Open list implement queue

setup(q(X,X)). enter(A, q(X,Y), q(X,Z)) :- Y = [A | Z]. leave(A, q(X,Z), q(Y,Z)) :- Y = [A | Y]. wrapup(q([],[])).
????setup(Q). setup(Q), enter(a,Q,R). setup(Q), enter(a,Q,R), leave(S,R,T). setup(Q), enter(a,Q,R), enter(b,R,S), leave(X,S,T),leave(Y,T,U), wrapup(q([],[])).

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Test queue
?-setup(Q),enter(a,Q,R),enter(b,R,S),leave(X,S,T), leave(Y,T,U),wrapup(U). Q R S X T Y U = q([a, b], [a, b]) = q([a, b], [b]) = q([a, b], []) =a = q([b], []) =b = q([], [])

Yes ?-

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Operations on a queue
setup(Q) Q
_1

enter(a,Q,R)

R
_2

enter(b,R,S)

a Q

T
_3

b
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Operations on a queue
leave(X,S,T) X T
_3

b Y T
_3

leave(Y,T,U) a

b
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Internal Prolog
A queue q(L,E) consists of open list L with

end marker E.
setup(q(X,X)).

?-setup(Q). Q = q(_1,_1) yes

The arrows from Q therefore go to the empty

open list _1 with end marker _1.

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Second goal
enter(A,q(X,Y),q(X,Z)):- Y = [A|Z].

To enter A into a queue q(X,Y),

bind Y to a list [A|Z], where Z is a fresh end marker, and return q(X,Z).
?-setup(Q),enter(a,Q,R). Q = q([a|_2], [a|_2]) R = q([a|_2], _2)

Unifies _1 with [a|_2],where _2 is a fresh end marker

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 When an element leaves a queue q(L,E), the

resulting queue has the tail of L in place of L. Note in the diagram to the right of leave(X,S,T) that the open list for queue T is the tail of the open list for S. The final goal wrapup(U) checks that the enter and leave operations leave U in an initial state q(L,E), where L is an empty openlist with end marker E.
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Difference Lists
Difference List are a technique for coping with

such changes. Difference List consists of a list and its suffix. We write this difference list as
dl(L,E).

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Contents of Difference List

The contents of the difference list consist of

the elements that are in L but not in E. Examples of difference lists with contents [a,b] are
dl([a,b],[]). Dl([a,b,c],[c]). Dl([a,b|E],E). Dl([a,b,c|F],[c|F]).

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CONTROL IN PROLOG
In the informal equation
algorithm = logic + control

Logic refers to the rules and queries in a

logic program and control refers to how a language computes a response to a query.

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CONTROL IN PROLOG
Control in Prolog is characterized by two

decisions

Goal order : Choose the leftmost subgoal. Rule order : Select the first applicable rule.

The response to a query is affected both by

goal order within the query and by rule order with in the database of facts and rules.

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CONTROL IN PROLOG
start with a query as the current goal; while the current goal is nonempty do
choose the leftmost subgoal; if a rule applies to the subgoal then select the first applicable rule; form a new current goal else backtrack end if

end while; succeed

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Example
A sublist S of Z can be specified in the

following seemingly equivalent ways:

preffix X of Z and suffix S of X. suffix S of X and prefix X of Z.

appen1([],Y,Y). appen1([H|X],Y,[H|Z]):- appen1(X,Y,Z). Prefix(X,Z) :- appen1(X,Y,Z). Suffix(Y,Z) :- appen1(X,Y,Z). appen2([H|X],Y,[H|Z]):- appen2(X,Y,Z). appen2([],Y,Y).
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Queries
The corresponding queries usually produce

the same responses. Rule order can also make a difference.

?-prefix(X,[a,b,c]),suffix([e],X). no ?-suffix([e],X),prefix(X,[a,b,c]). [infinite computation]

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Queries
New Solutions are produced on demand for
?- appen1(X,[c],Z). X = [] Z = [c] ; X = [_G230] Z = [_G230, c] ;

X = [_G230, _G236] Z = [_G230, _G236, c] ; ?- appen2(X,[c],Z).

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Unification an Substitutions
Unification is central to control in Prolog

Substitution is a function from variables to

terms

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Applying a Rule to a Goal

A rule

applies to a subgoal G if its head A unifies with G Variables in the rule are renamed before unification to keep them distinct from variables in the subgoal.

A :- B1, B2, , Bn

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A computation that succeeds without backtracking

GOAL Suffix([a],L),prefix(L,[a,b,c]). suffix([a],L) if append(_1,[a],L). Append(_1,[a],L),prefix(L,[a,b,c]). {_1[],L[a]} append([],[a],[a]). Prefix([a],[a,b,c]). prefix([a],[a,b,c]) if append([a],_2,[a,b,c]) append([a],_2,[a,b,c]). prefix([a],[a,b,c]) if append([],_2,[b,c]) Append([],_2,[b,c]). {_2[b,c]} append([],[b,c],[b,c]) yes
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Prolog Search Trees

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Goal Order Changes Solutions

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Cuts
A cut prunes or cuts out and unexplored

part of a Prolog search tree. Cuts can therefore be used to make a computation more efficient by eliminating futile searching and backtracking. Cuts can also be used to implement a form of negation

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Cuts
A cut, written as !, appears as a condition

within a rule. When rule

B :- C1,, Cj-1, !,Cj+1,,Ck

is applied, the cut tells control to backtrack past Cj-1,,C1,B, without considering any remaining rules for them.

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A cut as the First Condition

Consider rules of the form
B :- !, C.

If the goal C fails, then control backtracks

past B without considering any remaining rules for B. Thus the cut has the effect of making B fail if C fails.

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Example
b,G

b :- c. b :- d. b :- e. b :- c. b :- !,d. b :- e.
c,G !,d,G d,G

X
e,G

d,G

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Example
?-a(X).
b c d X=1

a(X)
e Yes X=2 !c c
backtrack

a(X)
b d e Yes X=2

backtrack Yes

a(1) a(2) b :b :-

:- b; :- e; c. d.

a(1) a(2) b :b :-

:- b; :- e; !,c. d.
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The Effect of Cut

As mentioned earlier, when a rule
B :- C1,, Cj-1, !,Cj+1,,Ck

is applied during a computation The cut tells control to backtrack past Cj1,..C1,B without considering any remaining rules for them.
The effect of inserting a cut in the middle of a

guess-and-verify rule.
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The Effect of Cut

The right side of a guess-and-verify rule has

the form guess(S), verify(S), where guess(S) generates potential solutions until one satisfying verify(S) is found. The effect of insering a cut between them, as
Conclusion(S) :- guess(S), !, verify(S)

is to eliminate all but the first guess.

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a(X) :a(X) :b(X) :b(X) :g(1). g(2). g(3). v(X). f(5)

b(X). f(X). g(X),v(X). X = 4, v(X).

a(X) :a(X) :b(X) :b(X) :g(1). g(2). g(3). v(X). f(5)

b(X). f(X). g(X),!,v(X). X = 4, v(X).

(a)

(b)

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a(Z)

a(Z)

b(Z)

f(5)

b(Z)

f(5)

g(Z),v(Z)

v(4)

g(Z),!,v(Z)

v(4)

v(1)

v(2)

v(3)

!v(X) v(2)
v(1)

v(3)

(a)

(b)

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Negation as Failure
The not operator in Prolog is implemented by

the rules
not(X) :- X, !, fail. not(_).

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