Filtering of SPECT Images

TkMarshel R.T. (R)(N)(CT)(MR)(NCT) (PET)CNMT

Filtering
Is

used to decrease statistical noise and or enhance edges. Enhanced edges equal increased Resolution

Realms of Filtering
Spatial

domain Frequency domain

Spatial Domain Filtering

Nonuniformity

corrections Background subtraction techniques Smoothing techniques (i.e. 5 point or 9 point smoothing kernels) Edge enhancement techniques

Frequency Domain Filtering

In

frequency domain filtering, we must convert our spatial image (in counts an location parameters) into a frequency domain image (in frequency parameters) We do this conversion with the Fourier Transform.

Fourier theory made easy (?)

Fourier Transform
The

basis of FT is that any curve or function can be represented as a series of sines and cosines with different amplitudes and frequencies.

A sine wave
8 6

5*sin (24t) Amplitude = 5 Frequency = 4 Hz

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A sine wave signal

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5*sin(24t)
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Amplitude = 5
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Frequency = 4 Hz Sampling rate = 256 samples/second Sampling duration = 1 second

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An undersampled signal
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sin(28t), SR = 8.5 Hz

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The Fourier Transform

A

transform takes one function (or signal) and turns it into another function (or signal) Continuous Fourier Transform:
close your eyes if you dont like integrals

Famous Fourier Transforms

2 1

Sine wave
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

-1

-2 0

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Delta function

Fourier series
Periodic

functions and signals may be expanded into a series of sine and cosine functions

Note
High

frequency components Responsible for simulating the ripid changes in intensity Edges and noise

Note
Low

frequency components Responsible for simulating amplitude of waveform Contrast and intensity

Remember

An activity profile along a row of an image looks like a smooth curve or function. This smooth curve can then be transformed or converted by a FT into a frequency domain signal. This can be done for every row in the image. What we end up is a data set (or matrix of data) that is now in cycles/pixel. Cycles/pixel is a unit of spatial frequency Relating the rate of change in intensity (or counts) with distance.

Spatial data example

Magnitude

distance 1 cycle per 4 pixels= .25 cycles/pixel 3 cycles per 4 pixels= .75 cycles/pixel 9 cycles per 4 pixels= 2.25 cycles/pixel So: X=Distance (pixels): Y= Counts

or Intensity data vs.

The Nyquist Frequency

The Nyquist frequency is equal to one-half of the sampling frequency. The Nyquist frequency is the highest frequency that can be measured in a signal. According to our discrete sampling theory, the maximum usable frequency is 0.5 cycles/pixel because at least two pixels are required to define the one cycle of the wave. This frequency is called the NF (.5 cycles/pixel) It is the highest frequency of intensity variation that can be accurately reproduced in our data. If our source has more variations than this, then the information will be lost and the image will not be faithfully reproduced.the effect of this is called ALAISING

Recap

We take a spatial domain image set We make an activity profile for each row of data in the image matrix. We apply Fourier Transformation to that Activity profile to give us our image data in the frequency domain (becomes: spatial-frequency domain) Now. We have an image in the frequency domain. Now we can apply various filters to remove or alter the magnitude of the selected frequencies in our frequency domain data set.

Filters
Filters

are mathematical functions that are multiplied into the frequency domain set to change the frequency distribution of the power spectrum. A filter is a magnitude vs. frequency function.

Ramp Filters
A Ramp Filter emphasizes the high frequency components in our data sets. Therefore, a ramp filter enhances or emphasizes noise in our data sets. Since we use the ramp filter for filtered back projection reconstruction, we must somehow get rid of this additional noise in our image data sets. (smoothing filters)

3 Types of filters
Low

pass High pass Band pass

Low pass filters

Used

to allow low frequencies through the filter and to reduce high frequencies (to attenuate)

High pass filters

Used

to allow high frequencies through the filter and to reduce or attenuate low frequencies. Used to enhance edges or small objects Example: Ramp Filter

Band pass filters

Used

to allow a certain band or range of frequencies through the filter.

Filter Characteristics

Characterized by 2 parameters 1. Cutoff frequency 2. Order

Note: Different facilities and manufacturers use different definitions and/or units to describe similar filters. When using filters, make sure to know which set of definitions and units you are working with.

Cutoff Frequency 2 definitions

Frequency

where filter magnitude drops to zero. Frequency where filter magnitude drops below a given value

Spatial Frequency 2 definitions

Cycles/pixel Cycles/cm

Commonly used filters

Ramp filter Hann filter Hamming filter Shepp-Logan Parzen filter Buttersworth filter Combination filter Weiner Filter (for restoration) Metz Filter (for restoration)

Ramp Filters
High

pass filter Used for edge enhancement Drawback: Propagate high frequency noise in the images Remember: high frequency noise is associated with low counting statistics. Remember, we always have a ramp filter applied to our data. FBP

Hann and Hamming Filter

Low

pass filter Used to remove high frequency noise This filter: Multiplies the lowest frequency by 1.0 This removes high frequency noise This causes some loss of contrast The only parameter used to describe a Hann and Hamming filter is its cutoff frequency.

Hann vs. Hamming filters

Functionally,

the Hann and Hamming filters are very similar except that the Hamming filter goes to a nonzero value at the Nyquist Frequency (0.5 cycles/pixel) These filters are used for studies where higher statistical accuracy is needed at the expense of a loss in spatial resolution.

Buttersworth Filter

Low pass filter Used to remove high frequency noise Better suited for studies where higher resolution needed to be preserved at the expense of higher statistical count fluctuations. A BF needs 2 parameters to describe the filter. Cutoff frequency Order of the filter The order of the filter is related to how fast the filter is cutoff. The higher the order, the sharper the cutoff.

Cutoff Frequency
Allows us to retain contrast at higher frequencies while still eliminating noise. The CF determines the size of the objects that will be removed from the image. Remember, frequency and size are related by the Fourier transform (larger objects are represented by lower frequencies of sine and cosines)

Order
Determines

how quickly the transition is made between frequencies that are kept and frequencies that are eliminated from the image.

How do we Set Filter Parameters

The

Cutoff Frequency is probably the most important parameter in filtering work. The CF is chosen based on a. The object being imaged. b. Count density in the image. c. Camera system and its spatial resolution d. Pixel size

Overall
The

CF should be chosen based on the Frequency space distribution of the data and the associated noise level in the images.

Count Density issues and associated noise levels

Note:

Noise level is our images will depend on the count density of the image. The higher the count density in our images the lower the noise level in relation to the images power spectrum

Camera system and its spatial resolution effects

The natural resolution of the camera and associated pixels will also affect the way we choose the cutoff frequency of our filters. The Nyquist Frequency is .5cycles/pixel. If the NF is given in Cycles/cm then it will vary for different pixel sizes. When filtering, the Cutoff frequency is ALWAYS chosen to be less than the Nyquist frequency. If the CF is higher than .5cycles/cm it will cause Aliasing artifacts.

Summary of Cutoff Frequency decisions

One criteria is to set the CF to a value approximately equal to the NF which is related to the resolution of the camera, usually around 1 cm. This is because a nuclear medicine camera cannot resolve images smaller than a certain size. Match the point of the filter where it drops to zero. Where the noise level in the image becomes zero.

Order or Roll off of the filter

How

quickly the transition is made between frequencies that are kept and frequencies that are eliminated. The only real rule of thumb is that if the order is set too high, then oscillations in the image intensity will be introduced.

How do we chose which type of filter to use?

There is no perfect filter!!!! So the best filter for you to use depends on: a. Different exams b. Different cameras and collimators c. Clinical procedures d. Acquired counts in the image e. Different phyicians

Basic principles to think about when choosing a filter for a given task:
All images reconstructed with backprojection require filtering with a ramp filter. A cutoff window is required to remove image noise that was enhanced by the ramp filter. A smooth cutoff is required to prevent the creation of rippling artifacts. The cutoff frequency should never be higher than the Nyquist Frequency.

Continued
The

choice of cutoff frequency is a compromise between smoothness of the image and spatial resolution. Images with higher count densities should use higher cutoff frequencies.

Helpful hints.
Begin

with the filter and parameters suggested by the manufacturer. Try filters suggested by respected collegues that use the same camera, computer and protocols. Try filter values given in the literature.

Helpful hintscontinued

Try changing the filter parameters on your system and carefully determine the effects of the changes on the resultant clinical image. Do not be afraid to try new filtering parameters. However, the final decision will be made by the physicians that read the scans. Perform phantom studies that closely approximate the organs of interest, and different count densities. When doing studies which will be compared to a normal database, make sure you use same filter as the normal data.

Cautions when working with filters

Remember that the units of cutoff frequency are not consistent between vendors. a. Cycles/cm b. Cycles/pixel c. Fraction of Nyquist Frequency d. Harmonic number

Note: Cycles/cm is thought to be the best one because it is independent of camera size and pixel matrix size.