UNIT I

UNIT I
SIGNAL
SIGNAL

Signal is a physical quantity that varies with

Signal is a physical quantity that varies with
respect to time , space or any other
respect to time , space or any other
independent variable
independent variable


Eg x(t)= sin t.
Eg x(t)= sin t.

the major cl assi fi cati ons of the si gnal

the major cl assi fi cati ons of the si gnal
are:
are:
(i) Discrete time signal
(i) Discrete time signal
(ii)
(ii)
Continuous time signal
Continuous time signal

Discrete time Unit impulse is defined as Discrete time Unit impulse is defined as
[n]= {0, n 0 [n]= {0, n 0
{1, n=0 {1, n=0
Unit impulse is also known as unit sample. Unit impulse is also known as unit sample.
Discrete time unit step signal is defined by Discrete time unit step signal is defined by
U[n]={0,n=0 U[n]={0,n=0
{1,n>= 0 {1,n>= 0
Continuous time unit impulse is defined as Continuous time unit impulse is defined as
(t)={1, t=0 (t)={1, t=0
{0, t 0 {0, t 0
Continuous time Unit step signal is defined as Continuous time Unit step signal is defined as
U(t)={0, t<0 U(t)={0, t<0
{1, t0 {1, t0

Peri odi c Si gnal & Aperi odi c Si gnal

Peri odi c Si gnal & Aperi odi c Si gnal

A signal is said to be periodic ,if it exhibits periodicity.i.e.,

A signal is said to be periodic ,if it exhibits periodicity.i.e.,
X(t +T)=x(t), for all values of t. Periodic signal has the
X(t +T)=x(t), for all values of t. Periodic signal has the
property that it is unchanged by a time shift of T. A signal
property that it is unchanged by a time shift of T. A signal
that does not satisfy the above periodicity property is called
that does not satisfy the above periodicity property is called
an aperiodic signal
an aperiodic signal

even and odd si gnal ?

even and odd si gnal ?

A discrete time signal is said to be even when, x[-n]=x[n].

A discrete time signal is said to be even when, x[-n]=x[n].
The continuous time signal is said to be even when, x(-t)=
The continuous time signal is said to be even when, x(-t)=
x(t) For example,Cosn is an even signal.
x(t) For example,Cosn is an even signal.
SIGNAL
SIGNAL

A signal is said to be energy signal if it
A signal is said to be energy signal if it
have finite energy and zero power.
have finite energy and zero power.

A signal is said to be power signal if it
A signal is said to be power signal if it
have infinite energy and finite power.
have infinite energy and finite power.

If the above two conditions are not
If the above two conditions are not
satisfied then the signal is said to be
satisfied then the signal is said to be
neigther energy nor power signal
neigther energy nor power signal
Fourier Series
Fourier Series
The Fourier series represents a periodic signal in terms of
The Fourier series represents a periodic signal in terms of
frequency components:
frequency components:
We get the Fourier series coefficients as follows
We get the Fourier series coefficients as follows
:
:
The complex exponential Fourier coefficients are a sequence of
The complex exponential Fourier coefficients are a sequence of
complex numbers representing the frequency component
complex numbers representing the frequency component

0 0
k.
k.

p
0
t ik
k
dt e ) t ( x
p
1
X
0

1 p
0 n
n ik
k
0
e ) n ( x
p
1
X

1 p
0 k
n ik
k
0
e X ) n ( x

k
t ik
k
0
e X ) t ( x
Fourier series
Fourier series

Fourier series: a complicated waveform analyzed into a

Fourier series: a complicated waveform analyzed into a
number of harmonically related sine and cosine functions
number of harmonically related sine and cosine functions

A continuous periodic signal x(t) with a period T0 may be

A continuous periodic signal x(t) with a period T0 may be
represented by:
represented by:

X(t)= X(t)=

k=1 k=1
( (A A
k k
cos cos k k t + B t + B
k k
sin sin k k t)+ t)+ A A
0 0

Dirichlet conditions
Dirichlet conditions
must be placed on
must be placed on
x(t)
x(t)
for the series to
for the series to
be valid: the integral of the magnitude of
be valid: the integral of the magnitude of
x(t)
x(t)
over a
over a
complete period must be finite, and the signal can only
complete period must be finite, and the signal can only
have a finite number of discontinuities in any finite interval
have a finite number of discontinuities in any finite interval
Trigonometric form for Fourier series
Trigonometric form for Fourier series

If the two fundamental components of a

If the two fundamental components of a
periodic signal areB1cos0t and C1sin0t,
periodic signal areB1cos0t and C1sin0t,
then their sum is expressed by trigonometric
then their sum is expressed by trigonometric
identities:
identities:

X(t)=
X(t)=
A
A
0 0
+
+

k=1 k=1
(
(

B
B
k k
2 2
+
+

A
A
k k
2 2
)
)
1/2 1/2
(C
(C
k k
cos
cos
k
k


t-
t-

k k
)
)
or
or

X(t)=
X(t)=
A
A
0 0
+
+

k=1 k=1
(
(

B
B
k k
2 2
+
+

A
A
k k
2 2
)
)
1/2 1/2
(C
(C
k k
sin k
sin k


t+
t+

k k
)
)
UNIT II
UNIT II
Fourier Transform
Fourier Transform

Vi ewed peri odi c functi ons i n terms of frequency components Vi ewed peri odi c functi ons i n terms of frequency components
(Fouri er seri es) as wel l as ordi nary functi ons of ti me (Fouri er seri es) as wel l as ordi nary functi ons of ti me

Vi ewed LTI systems i n terms of what they do to frequency Vi ewed LTI systems i n terms of what they do to frequency
components (frequency response) components (frequency response)

Vi ewed LTI systems i n terms of what they do to ti me-domai n Vi ewed LTI systems i n terms of what they do to ti me-domai n
si gnal s (convol uti on wi th i mpul se response) si gnal s (convol uti on wi th i mpul se response)

Vi ew aperi odi c functi ons i n terms of frequency components vi a Vi ew aperi odi c functi ons i n terms of frequency components vi a
Fouri er transform Fouri er transform

Defi ne (conti nuous-ti me) Fouri er transform and DTFT Defi ne (conti nuous-ti me) Fouri er transform and DTFT

Gai n i nsi ght i nto the meani ng of Fouri er transform through Gai n i nsi ght i nto the meani ng of Fouri er transform through
compari son wi th Fouri er seri es compari son wi th Fouri er seri es
The Fourier Transform
The Fourier Transform

A transform takes one function (or signal)

A transform takes one function (or signal)
and turns it into another function (or signal)
and turns it into another function (or signal)

Continuous Fourier Transform:

Continuous Fourier Transform:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

df e f H t h
dt e t h f H
ift
ift

2
2
Continuous Time Fourier Transform
Continuous Time Fourier Transform
We can extend the formula for continuous-time Fourier series
We can extend the formula for continuous-time Fourier series
coefficients for a periodic signal
coefficients for a periodic signal
to aperiodic signals as well. The continuous-time Fourier series
to aperiodic signals as well. The continuous-time Fourier series
is not defined for aperiodic signals, but we call the formula
is not defined for aperiodic signals, but we call the formula
the (continuous time)
the (continuous time)
Fouri er transform
Fouri er transform
.
.

2 / p
2 / p
t ik
p
0
t ik
k
dt e ) t ( x
p
1
dt e ) t ( x
p
1
X
0 0

dt e ) t ( x ) ( X
t i
Inverse Transforms
Inverse Transforms
If we have the full sequence of Fourier coefficients for a periodic
If we have the full sequence of Fourier coefficients for a periodic
signal, we can reconstruct it by multiplying the complex sinusoids
signal, we can reconstruct it by multiplying the complex sinusoids
of frequency
of frequency

0 0
k by the weights X
k by the weights X
k k
and summing:
and summing:
We can perform a similar reconstruction for aperiodic signals
We can perform a similar reconstruction for aperiodic signals
These are called the
These are called the
i nverse transforms
i nverse transforms
.
.

1 p
0 k
n ik
k
0
e X ) n ( x

k
t ik
k
0
e X ) t ( x

d e ) ( X
2
1
) t ( x
t i

d e ) ( X
2
1
) n ( x
n i
Fourier Transform of Impulse Functions
Fourier Transform of Impulse Functions
Find the Fourier transform of the Dirac delta function:
Find the Fourier transform of the Dirac delta function:
Find the DTFT of the Kronecker delta function:
Find the DTFT of the Kronecker delta function:
The delta functions contain all frequencies at equal amplitudes.
The delta functions contain all frequencies at equal amplitudes.
Roughly speaking, thats why the system response to an impulse
Roughly speaking, thats why the system response to an impulse
input is important: it tests the system at all frequencies.
input is important: it tests the system at all frequencies.
1 e dt e ) t ( dt e ) t ( x ) ( X
0 i t i t i

1 e e ) n ( e ) n ( x ) ( X
0 i
n
n i
n
n i

Laplace Transform
Laplace Transform

Lapal ce transform i s a general i zati on of the Fouri er transform i n the Lapal ce transform i s a general i zati on of the Fouri er transform i n the
sense that i t al l ows compl ex frequency whereas Fouri er anal ysi s can sense that i t al l ows compl ex frequency whereas Fouri er anal ysi s can
onl y handl e real frequency. Li ke Fouri er transform, Lapal ce transform onl y handl e real frequency. Li ke Fouri er transform, Lapal ce transform
al l ows us to anal yze a l i near ci rcui t probl em, no matter how al l ows us to anal yze a l i near ci rcui t probl em, no matter how
compl i cated the ci rcui t i s, i n the frequency domai n i n stead of i n he ti me compl i cated the ci rcui t i s, i n the frequency domai n i n stead of i n he ti me
domai n. domai n.

Mathemati cal l y, i t produces the benefi t of converti ng a set of Mathemati cal l y, i t produces the benefi t of converti ng a set of
di fferenti al equati ons i nto a correspondi ng set of al gebrai c equati ons, di fferenti al equati ons i nto a correspondi ng set of al gebrai c equati ons,
whi ch are much easi er to sol ve. Physi cal l y, i t produces more i nsi ght of whi ch are much easi er to sol ve. Physi cal l y, i t produces more i nsi ght of
the ci rcui t and al l ows us to know the bandwi dth, phase, and transfer the ci rcui t and al l ows us to know the bandwi dth, phase, and transfer
characteri sti cs i mportant for ci rcui t anal ysi s and desi gn. characteri sti cs i mportant for ci rcui t anal ysi s and desi gn.

Most i mportantl y, Lapl ace transform l i fts the l i mi t of Fouri er anal ysi s to Most i mportantl y, Lapl ace transform l i fts the l i mi t of Fouri er anal ysi s to
al l ow us to fi nd both the steady-state and transi ent responses of a al l ow us to fi nd both the steady-state and transi ent responses of a
l i near ci rcui t. Usi ng Fouri er transform, one can onl y deal wi th he steady l i near ci rcui t. Usi ng Fouri er transform, one can onl y deal wi th he steady
state behavi or (i .e. ci rcui t response under i ndefi ni te si nusoi dal state behavi or (i .e. ci rcui t response under i ndefi ni te si nusoi dal
exci tati on). exci tati on).

Usi ng Lapl ace transform, one can fi nd the response under any types of Usi ng Lapl ace transform, one can fi nd the response under any types of
exci tati on (e.g. swi tchi ng on and off at any gi ven ti me(s), si nusoi dal , exci tati on (e.g. swi tchi ng on and off at any gi ven ti me(s), si nusoi dal ,
i mpul se, square wave exci tati ons, etc i mpul se, square wave exci tati ons, etc. .
Laplace Transform
Laplace Transform
Application of Laplace Transform to
Application of Laplace Transform to
Circuit Analysis
Circuit Analysis

A system is an operation that transforms

input signal x into output signal y.
LTI Digital Systems

Li near Ti me Invari ant

Li neari ty/Superposi ti on:

If a system has an input that can be

expressed as a sum of signals, then the
response of the system can be expressed as
a sum of the individual responses to the
respective systems.

LTI

If you delay the input, response is just a delayed

version of original response.

X(n-k) y(n-k)

Causality could also be loosely defined by there is

no output signal as long as there is no input
signal or output at current time does not depend
on future values of the input.

The input and output signals for LTI

systems have special relationship in terms
of convol uti on sum and i ntegral s.

Y(t)=x(t)*h(t) Y[n]=x[n]*h[n]
UNIT III
UNIT III

The theory of taking discrete sample values (grid of color

pixels) from functions defined over continuous domains
(incident radiance defined over the film plane) and then
using those samples to reconstruct new functions that are
similar to the original (reconstruction).

Sampl er: selects sample points on the image plane

Fi l ter: blends multiple samples together

For band limited function, we can just

increase the sampling rate

However, few of interesting functions in

computer graphics are band limited, in
particular, functions with discontinuities.

It is because the discontinuity always falls

between two samples and the samples
provides no information of the discontinuity.
Z
Z
-transforms
-transforms

For discrete-time systems,

For discrete-time systems,
z
z
-transforms play
-transforms play
the same role of Laplace transforms do in
the same role of Laplace transforms do in
continuous-time systems
continuous-time systems

As with the Laplace transform, we compute

As with the Laplace transform, we compute
forward and inverse
forward and inverse
z
z
-transforms by use of
-transforms by use of
transforms pairs and properties
transforms pairs and properties
[ ]

n
n
z n h z H ] [
Bilateral Forward z-transform

R
n
dz z z H
j
n h
1
] [
2
1
] [

Bilateral Inverse z-transform

Region of Convergence
Region of Convergence

Region of the complex

Region of the complex
z
z
-plane for which
-plane for which
forward
forward
z
z
-transform
-transform
converges
converges
Im{z}
Re{z}
Entire
plane
Im{z}
Re{z}
Complement
of a disk
Im{z}
Re{z}
Disk
Im{z}
Re{z}
Intersection
of a disk and
complement
of a disk

Four possibilities (
Four possibilities (
z
z
=0
=0
is a special case and
is a special case and
may or may not be
may or may not be
included)
included)
Z
Z
-transform Pairs
-transform Pairs

h
h
[
[
n
n
] =
] =

[
[
n
n
]
]
Region of convergence:
Region of convergence:
entire
entire
z
z
-plane
-plane

h
h
[
[
n
n
] =
] =

[
[
n-1
n-1
]
]
Region of convergence:
Region of convergence:
entire
entire
z
z
-plane
-plane
h
h
[
[
n
n
-1]
-1]

z
z
-1 -1
H
H
[
[
z
z
]
]
[ ] [ ] 1 ] [
0
0

n
n
n
n
z n z n z H
[ ] [ ]
1
1
1
1 1 ] [

z z n z n z H
n
n
n
n

[ ]
1 if
1
1
] [
0 0
<

,
_

z
a
z
a
z
a
z a
z n u a z H
n
n
n
n n
n
n n

h
h
[
[
n
n
] =
] =
a
a
n n
u
u
[
[
n
n
]
]
Region of
Region of
convergence: |
convergence: |
z
z
|
|
> |
> |
a
a
| which is
| which is
the complement
the complement
of a disk
of a disk
[ ] a z
z a
n u a
Z
n
>

for
1
1
1
Stability
Stability

Rule #1: For a causal sequence, poles are

Rule #1: For a causal sequence, poles are
inside the unit circle (applies to z-transform
inside the unit circle (applies to z-transform
functions that are ratios of two polynomials)
functions that are ratios of two polynomials)

Rule #2: More generally, unit circle is

Rule #2: More generally, unit circle is
included in region of convergence. (In
included in region of convergence. (In
continuous-time, the imaginary axis would
continuous-time, the imaginary axis would
be in the region of convergence of the
be in the region of convergence of the
Laplace transform.)
Laplace transform.)

This is stable if |
This is stable if |
a
a
| < 1 by rule #1.
| < 1 by rule #1.

It is stable if |
It is stable if |
z
z
| > |
| > |
a
a
| and |
| and |
a
a
| < 1 by rule #2.
| < 1 by rule #2.
Inverse
Inverse
z
z
-transform
-transform

Yuk! Using the definition requires a contour

Yuk! Using the definition requires a contour
integration in the complex
integration in the complex
z
z
-plane.
-plane.

Fortunately, we tend to be interested in

Fortunately, we tend to be interested in
only a few basic signals (pulse, step, etc.)
only a few basic signals (pulse, step, etc.)

Virtually all of the signals well see can be built

Virtually all of the signals well see can be built
up from these basic signals.
up from these basic signals.

For these common signals, the

For these common signals, the
z
z
-transform pairs
-transform pairs
have been tabulated (see Lathi, Table 5.1)
have been tabulated (see Lathi, Table 5.1)
[ ] [ ] dz z z F
j
n f
n
j c
j c
1
2
1

+

Example
Example

Ratio of polynomial z-
Ratio of polynomial z-
domain functions
domain functions

Divide through by the

Divide through by the
highest power of z
highest power of z

Factor denominator into

Factor denominator into
first-order factors
first-order factors

Use partial fraction

Use partial fraction
decomposition to get
decomposition to get
first-order terms
first-order terms
2
1
2
3
1 2
] [
2
2
+
+ +

z z
z z
z X
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
3
1
2 1
] [


+
+ +

z z
z z
z X
( )
1 1
2 1
1
2
1
1
2 1
] [

,
_

+ +

z z
z z
z X
1
2
1
1
0
1
2
1
1
] [


+

+
z
A
z
A
B z X
Example (cont)
Example (cont)

Find
Find
B
B
0 0
by
by
polynomial division
polynomial division

Express in terms of
Express in terms of
B
B
0 0

Solve for
Solve for
A
A
1 1
and
and
A
A
2 2
1 5
2 3
2
1 2 1
2
3
2
1
1
1 2
1 2 1 2

+
+ + +

z
z z
z z z z
( )
1 1
1
1
2
1
1
5 1
2 ] [

,
_

+
+
z z
z
z X
8
2
1
1 2 1
2
1
1
2 1
9
2 1
4 4 1
1
2 1
1
1
2 1
2
2
1
2 1
1
1
1

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

z
z
z
z z
A
z
z z
A
Example (cont)
Example (cont)

Express
Express
X
X
[
[
z
z
]
]
in terms of
in terms of
B
B
0 0
,
,
A
A
1 1
, and
, and
A
A
2 2

Use table to obtain inverse

Use table to obtain inverse
z
z
-transform
-transform

With the unilateral

With the unilateral
z
z
-transform, or the
-transform, or the
bilateral
bilateral
z
z
-transform with region of
-transform with region of
convergence, the inverse
convergence, the inverse
z
z
-transform is
-transform is
unique
unique
1
1 1
8
2
1
1
9
2 ] [


+

z
z
z X
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] n u n u n n x
n
8
2
1
9 2 +

,
_

Z
Z
-transform Properties
-transform Properties

Linearity
Linearity

Right shift (delay)

Right shift (delay)
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] z F a z F a n f a n f a
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
+ +
[ ] [ ] [ ] z F z m n u m n f
m

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
,
_

m
n
n m m
z n f z z F z n u m n f
1
Z
Z
-transform Properties
-transform Properties
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] { } [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
( )
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] z F z F
z r f z m f
z r f m f
z m n f m f
z m n f m f
m n f m f Z n f n f Z
m n f m f n f n f
r
r m
m
m r
m r
m n
n
n
n
m
m
m
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1

,
_

,
_

,
_

'

Convolution definition

Take z-transform

Z-transform definition

Interchange summation

Substitute r = n - m

Z-transform definition
UNIT IV
UNIT IV
Introduction
Introduction

Impulse response
Impulse response
h
h
[n] can fully characterize a LTI
[n] can fully characterize a LTI
system, and we can have the output of LTI system as
system, and we can have the output of LTI system as

The z-transform of impulse response is called

The z-transform of impulse response is called
transfer or
transfer or
system function
system function
H
H
(
(
z
z
).
).

Frequency response
Frequency response
at is valid if ROC
at is valid if ROC
includes and
includes and
[ ] [ ] [ ] n h n x n y
( ) ( ) ( ). z H z X z Y
( ) ( )
1

z
j
z H e H

, 1 z
( ) ( ) ( )
j j j
e H e X e Y
5.1 Frequency Response of LIT
5.1 Frequency Response of LIT
System
System

Consider and ,
Consider and ,
then
then

magnitude
magnitude

phase
phase

We will model and analyze LTI systems based on the

We will model and analyze LTI systems based on the
magnitude and phase responses.
magnitude and phase responses.
) (
) ( ) (


j
e X j j j
e e X e X

) (
) ( ) (


j
e H j j j
e e H e H

) ( ) ( ) (
j j j
e H e X e Y
) ( ) ( ) (
j j j
e H e X e Y +
System Function
System Function

General form of LCCDE

General form of LCCDE

Compute the z-transform

Compute the z-transform
[ ] [ ] k n x b k n y a
M
k
k
N
k
k


0 0
( ) z X z b z Y z a
k
M
k
k
N
k
k
k

0 0
) (
( )
( )
( )

N
k
k
k
k
M
k
k
z a
z b
z X
z Y
z H
0
0
System Function: Pole/zero
System Function: Pole/zero
Factorization
Factorization

Stability requirement can be verified.

Stability requirement can be verified.

Choice of ROC determines causality.

Choice of ROC determines causality.

Location of zeros and poles determines the

Location of zeros and poles determines the
frequency response and phase
frequency response and phase
( )
( )
( )

N
k
k
M
k
k
z d
z c
a
b
z H
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
. ,..., , : zeros
2 1 M
c c c
. ,..., , : poles
2 1 N
d d d
Second-order System
Second-order System

Suppose the system function of a LTI system is

Suppose the system function of a LTI system is

To find the difference equation that is satisfied by

To find the difference equation that is satisfied by
the input and out of this system
the input and out of this system

Can we know the impulse response?

Can we know the impulse response?
.
)
4
3
1 )(
2
1
1 (
) 1 (
) (
1 1
2 1

+
+

z z
z
z H
) (
) (
8
3
4
1
1
2 1
)
4
3
1 )(
2
1
1 (
) 1 (
) (
2 1
2 1
1 1
2 1
z X
z Y
z z
z z
z z
z
z H
+
+ +

+
+

] 2 [ 2 ] 1 [ 2 ] [ ] 2 [
8
3
] 1 [
4
1
] [ + + + n x n x n x n y n y n y
System Function: Stability
System Function: Stability

Stability of LTI system:

Stability of LTI system:

This condition is identical to the condition

This condition is identical to the condition
that
that

The stability condition is equivalent to the

The stability condition is equivalent to the
condition that the ROC of
condition that the ROC of
H
H
(
(
z
z
) includes the unit
) includes the unit
circle.
circle.

<
n
n h ] [
. 1 when ] [ <

z z n h
n
n
System Function: Causality
System Function: Causality

If the system is causal, it follows that

If the system is causal, it follows that
h
h
[
[
n
n
] must be a right-
] must be a right-
sided sequence. The ROC of
sided sequence. The ROC of
H
H
(
(
z
z
) must be outside the
) must be outside the
outermost
outermost
pole.
pole.

If the system is anti-causal, it follows that

If the system is anti-causal, it follows that
h
h
[
[
n
n
] must be a
] must be a
left-sided sequence. The ROC of
left-sided sequence. The ROC of
H
H
(
(
z
z
) must be inside the
) must be inside the
innermost
innermost
pole.
pole.
1
a
Im
Re
1
a
Im
Re
b a
Im
Re
Right-sided
(causal)
Left-sided
(anti-causal)
Two-sided
(non-causal)
Determining the ROC
Determining the ROC

Consider the LTI system

Consider the LTI system

The system function is obtained as

The system function is obtained as
] [ ] 2 [ ] 1 [
2
5
] [ n x n y n y n y +
) 2 1 )(
2
1
1 (
1

2
5
1
1
) (
1 1
2 1

z z
z z
z H
System Function: Inverse Systems
System Function: Inverse Systems

is an inverse system for , if is an inverse system for , if

The ROCs of must overlap. The ROCs of must overlap.

Useful for canceling the effects of another system Useful for canceling the effects of another system

See the discussion in Sec.5.2.2 regarding ROC See the discussion in Sec.5.2.2 regarding ROC
( ) z H
i
( ) z H
1 ) ( ) ( ) ( z H z H z G
i
) (
1
) (
z H
z H
i

) (
1
) (

j
j
i
e H
e H
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] n n h n h n g
i

) ( and ) ( z H z H
i
All-pass System
All-pass System

A system of the form (or cascade of these)

A system of the form (or cascade of these)
( )
1
1
1

az
a z
Z H
Ap
( ) 1
j
Ap
e H
( )

j
j
j
j
j
j
Ap
ae
e a
e
ae
a e
e H

1
* 1
1

j
j
e r a
re a
1
* / 1 : zero
: pole

All-pass System: General Form

All-pass System: General Form

In general, all pass systems have form

In general, all pass systems have form
( )

c r
M
k
k k
k k
M
k
k
k
Ap
z e z e
e z e z
z d
d z
z H
1
1 * 1
1 * 1
1
1
1
) 1 )( 1 (
) )( (
1
Causal/stable:
1 , <
k k
d e
real poles complex poles
All-Pass System Example
All-Pass System Example
0.8
0.5
z-plane
Unit
circle
4
3

3
4

2
Re
Im
1 and 2
c r
M M
zeros. and poles 4 2 has system pass - all This +
r c
M M N M
j j
e r re
1 conjugate & reciprocal
: zero : pole


Minimum-Phase System
Minimum-Phase System

Mi ni mum-phase system:
Mi ni mum-phase system:
all zeros and all poles are
all zeros and all poles are
inside the unit circle.
inside the unit circle.

The name
The name
minimum-phase
minimum-phase
comes from a property of the
comes from a property of the
phase response (minimum phase-lag/group-delay).
phase response (minimum phase-lag/group-delay).

Minimum-phase systems have some special properties.

Minimum-phase systems have some special properties.

When we design a filter, we may have multiple choices to

When we design a filter, we may have multiple choices to
satisfy the certain requirements. Usually, we prefer the
satisfy the certain requirements. Usually, we prefer the
minimum phase which is unique.
minimum phase which is unique.

All systems can be represented as a minimum-phase system

All systems can be represented as a minimum-phase system
and an all-pass system.
and an all-pass system.
UNIT V
UNIT V
Example
Example

Block diagram representation of

Block diagram representation of
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] n x b 2 n y a 1 n y a n y
0 2 1
+ +
Block Diagram Representation
Block Diagram Representation

LTI systems with

LTI systems with
rational system
rational system
function can be
function can be
represented as
represented as
constant-coefficient
constant-coefficient
difference equation
difference equation

The implementation of
The implementation of
difference equations
difference equations
requires delayed
requires delayed
values of the
values of the

input
input

output
output

intermediate results
intermediate results

The requirement of
The requirement of
delayed elements
delayed elements
implies need for
implies need for
storage
storage

We also need means

We also need means
of
of

addition
addition

multiplication
multiplication
Direct Form I
Direct Form I

General form of difference equation

General form of difference equation

Alternative equivalent form

Alternative equivalent form
[ ] [ ]



M
0 k
k
N
0 k
k
k n x b

k n y a
[ ] [ ] [ ]



M
0 k
k
N
1 k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
Direct Form I
Direct Form I

Transfer function can be written as

Transfer function can be written as

Direct Form I Represents

Direct Form I Represents
( )

N
1 k
k
k
M
0 k
k
k
z a 1
z b
z H
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z V
z a 1
1
z V z H z Y
z X z b z X z H z V
z b
z a 1
1
z H z H z H
N
1 k
k
k
2
M
0 k
k
k 1
M
0 k
k
k
N
1 k
k
k
1 2

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] n v k n y a n y
k n x b n v
N
1 k
k
M
0 k
k
+

Alternative Representation
Alternative Representation

Replace order of cascade LTI systems

Replace order of cascade LTI systems
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z W z b z W z H z Y
z X
z a 1
1
z X z H z W
z a 1
1
z b z H z H z H
M
0 k
k
k 1
N
1 k
k
k
2
N
1 k
k
k
M
0 k
k
k 2 1

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]

+
M
0 k
k
N
1 k
k
k n w b n y
n x k n w a n w
Alternative Block Diagram
Alternative Block Diagram

We can change the order of the cascade

We can change the order of the cascade
systems
systems
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]

+
M
0 k
k
N
1 k
k
k n w b n y
n x k n w a n w
Direct Form II
Direct Form II

No need to store the same data No need to store the same data
twice in previous system twice in previous system

So we can collapse the delay So we can collapse the delay

elements into one chain elements into one chain

This is called Direct Form II or This is called Direct Form II or

the Canonical Form the Canonical Form

Theoretically no difference Theoretically no difference

between Direct Form I and II between Direct Form I and II

Implementation wise Implementation wise

Less memory in Direct II Less memory in Direct II

Difference when using finite- Difference when using finite-

precision arithmetic precision arithmetic
Signal Flow Graph Representation
Signal Flow Graph Representation

Similar to block diagram representation

Similar to block diagram representation

Notational differences
Notational differences

A network of directed branches connected

A network of directed branches connected
at nodes
at nodes

Example representation of a difference

Example representation of a difference
equation
equation
Example
Example

Representation of Direct Form II with signal

Representation of Direct Form II with signal
flow graphs
flow graphs
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] n w n y
1 n w n w
n w b n w b n w
n w n w
n x n aw n w
3
2 4
4 1 2 0 3
1 2
4 1

+
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] 1 n w b n w b n y
n x 1 n aw n w
1 1 1 0
1 1
+
+
Determination of System
Determination of System
Function from Flow Graph
Function from Flow Graph
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] n w n w n y
1 n w n w
n x n w n w
n w n w
n x n w n w
4 2
3 4
2 3
1 2
4 1
+

+


( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) z W z W z Y
z z W z W
z X z W z W
z W z W
z X z W z W
4 2
1
3 4
2 3
1 2
4 1
+

( )
( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) z W z W z Y
z 1
1 z z X
z W
z 1
1 z z X
z W
4 2
1
1
4
1
1
2
+

( )
( )
( )
[ ] [ ] [ ] n u 1 n u n h
z 1
z
z X
z Y
z H
1 n 1 n
1
1
+

Basic Structures for IIR Systems:
Basic Structures for IIR Systems:
Direct Form I
Direct Form I
Basic Structures for IIR Systems:
Basic Structures for IIR Systems:
Direct Form II
Direct Form II
Basic Structures for IIR Systems:
Basic Structures for IIR Systems:
Cascade Form
Cascade Form

General form for cascade implementation

General form for cascade implementation

More practical form in 2

More practical form in 2
nd nd
order systems
order systems
( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )

2 1
2 1
N
1 k
1
k
1
k
N
1 k
1
k
M
1 k
1
k
1
k
M
1 k
1
k
z d 1 z d 1 z c 1
z g 1 z g 1 z f 1
A z H
( )

1
M
1 k
2
k 2
1
k 1
2
k 2
1
k 1 k 0
z a z a 1
z b z b b
z H
Example
Example

Cascade of Direct Form I subsections Cascade of Direct Form I subsections

Cascade of Direct Form II subsections Cascade of Direct Form II subsections

( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
2 1
2 1
z 25 . 0 1
z 1
z 5 . 0 1
z 1

z 25 . 0 1 z 5 . 0 1
z 1 z 1
z 125 . 0 z 75 . 0 1
z z 2 1
z H

+ +

+
+ +

Basic Structures for IIR Systems:

Basic Structures for IIR Systems:
Parallel Form
Parallel Form

Represent system function using partial fraction expansion Represent system function using partial fraction expansion

Or by pairingthe real poles Or by pairingthe real poles

( )
( )
( )( )

+
P P P
N
1 k
N
1 k
1
k
1
k
1
k k
1
k
k
N
0 k
k
k
z d 1 z d 1
z e 1 B
z c 1
A
z C z H
( )

+
+
S P
N
1 k
2
k 2
1
k 1
1
k 1 k 0
N
0 k
k
k
z a z a 1
z e e
z C z H
Example
Example

Partial Fraction Expansion

Partial Fraction Expansion

Combine poles to get

Combine poles to get
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 2 1
2 1
z 25 . 0 1
25
z 5 . 0 1
18
8
z 125 . 0 z 75 . 0 1
z z 2 1
z H

+
+
+ +

( )
2 1
1
z 125 . 0 z 75 . 0 1
z 8 7
8 z H

+
+
+
Transposed Forms
Transposed Forms

Linear signal flow graph property:

Linear signal flow graph property:

Transposing doesnt change the input-output

Transposing doesnt change the input-output
relation
relation

Transposing:
Transposing:

Reverse directions of all branches

Reverse directions of all branches

Interchange input and output nodes

Interchange input and output nodes

Example:
Example:

Reverse directions of branches and interchange

Reverse directions of branches and interchange
input and output
input and output
( )
1
az 1
1
z H

Example
Example
Transpose

Both have the same system function or

Both have the same system function or
difference equation
difference equation
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 2 n x b 1 n x b n x b 2 n y a 1 n y a n y
2 1 0 2 1
+ + + +
Basic Structures for FIR Systems: Direct Form
Basic Structures for FIR Systems: Direct Form

Special cases of IIR direct form structures

Special cases of IIR direct form structures

Transpose of direct form I gives direct form II

Transpose of direct form I gives direct form II

Both forms are equal for FIR systems

Both forms are equal for FIR systems

Tapped delay line

Tapped delay line
Basic Structures for FIR Systems:
Basic Structures for FIR Systems:
Cascade Form
Cascade Form

Obtained by factoring the polynomial

Obtained by factoring the polynomial
system function
system function
( ) [ ] ( )



+ +
M
0 n
M
1 k
2
k 2
1
k 1 k 0
n
S
z b z b b z n h z H
Structures for Linear-Phase FIR
Structures for Linear-Phase FIR
Systems
Systems

Causal FIR system with generalized linear phase are

Causal FIR system with generalized linear phase are
symmetric
symmetric
:
:

Symmetry means we can half the number of multiplications

Symmetry means we can half the number of multiplications

Example: For even M and type I or type III systems

Example: For even M and type I or type III systems
:
:
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] IV) or II (type M 0,1,..., n n h n M h
III) or I (type M 0,1,..., n n h n M h


[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] ( ) [ ] [ ] 2 / M n x 2 / M h k M n x k n x k h
k M n x k M h 2 / M n x 2 / M h k n x k h
k n x k h 2 / M n x 2 / M h k n x k h k n x k h n y
1 2 / M
0 k
1 2 / M
0 k
1 2 / M
0 k
M
1 2 / M k
1 2 / M
0 k
M
0 k
+ + +
+ + +
+ +

Structures for Linear-Phase FIR
Structures for Linear-Phase FIR
Systems
Systems

Structure for even M

Structure for even M

Structure for odd M

Structure for odd M