Adolescence 8th edition Chapter One: Biological Transitions

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By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D.

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Chapter 1 Overview
What is puberty?
What is the endocrine system? What triggers puberty?

What are the physical changes of puberty? Variations in the timing and tempo of puberty What is the psychosocial impact of puberty?
Early vs. Late maturation Eating disorders

Physical health in adolescence

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Puberty: An Introduction
From Latin word pubertas (adult) Period of lifespan in which an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction Hormones regulated by the endocrine system lead to physical changes No new hormones are produced and no new bodily systems develop at puberty
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The Endocrine System

Produces, circulates, and regulates hormone levels in the body Hormones
Substances secreted by endocrine glands

Glands

Organs that stimulate particular parts of the body to respond in specific ways

Feedback loop (HPG axis)

Set point (Example: thermostat)
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The Endocrine System: HPG Feedback Loop

HPG Axis:
Hypothalamus Pituitary gland (master gland) Gonads (testes and ovaries)

Gonads release sex hormones into bloodstream

Androgens and estrogens
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What Triggers Puberty?

Although no new hormones in adolescence, something signals the HPG axis to kick on
Presence of mature sexual partners Nutritional resources

Leptin may be the most important signal

Protein produced by fat cells Must accumulate enough body fat (~11%) Rising levels of leptin signal hypothalamus to stop inhibiting puberty (at least in females)

Adrenarche
Maturation of adrenal glands leads to physical (somatic) changes
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What Role Do Hormones Play?

Organizing Role
Prenatal hormones program the brain to be masculine or feminine (like setting an alarm clock) Patterns of behavior as a result of this organization may not appear until adolescence (Ex: sex differences in aggression)

Activating Role
Increase in certain hormones at puberty activates physical changes (Ex: secondary sex characteristics)

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Puberty is Affected by Context

Timing of physical changes in adolescence varies by
Regions of the world Socioeconomic class Ethnic group Historical era

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Example: Menarche (first menstruation)

U.S. average 12 to 13 years Lumi (New Guinea) average > 18 years

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What Are The 5 Major Physical Changes of Puberty?

Adolescent growth spurt Development of primary sex characteristics (gonads) Development of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair) Changes in body composition Changes in circulation and respiration
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Physical Changes of Puberty: Adolescent Growth Spurt

Adolescent growth spurt
Rapid acceleration in growth (height and weight) Simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens Peak Height Velocity (Time that adolescent is growing most quickly)

Average female growth spurt is 2 years earlier than the average male growth spurt

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Physical Changes of Puberty: Adolescent Growth Spurt

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What Are The Physical Changes of Puberty?

Changes in body composition
Relative proportions of body fat/muscle change
Different for boys (more muscle) and girls (more fat)

Skeletal changes (Bones become harder, denser, more brittle)

Closing of ends of long bones (epiphysis)

Asymmetry of growth

Circulatory and respiratory changes

Size and capacity of heart and lungs Exercise tolerance
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Sexual Maturation: Overview

Development of secondary sex characteristics
Measured in boys and girls by Tanner Stages Changes include
growth of pubic hair changes in appearance of sex organs breast development
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Sexual Maturation: Boys

Spermarche typically occurs 1 year after accelerated penis growth Boys capable of fathering a child before they look like adults; opposite true for girls

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Sexual Maturation: Girls

Sequence less regular than in boys Menarche typically occurs after other secondary sex characteristics; regular ovulation follows 2 years later Thus, girls appear physically mature before they are actually capable of reproduction

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Variations in the Timing and Tempo of Puberty

No specific average age at onset or duration of puberty No relation between the age at which puberty begins and the rate of pubertal development Timing (early or late) and adult stature
Small effect: late maturers slightly taller as adults, early maturing girls slightly heavier as adults

Childhood height and weight

Stronger correlation with adult height and weight

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Variations in the Timing and Tempo of Puberty

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Individual Differences in Pubertal Maturation

Pubertal maturation
Interaction between genes and environment Differences in timing/rate among individuals in the same general environment result chiefly from genetic factors Two key environmental influences
Nutrition Health

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Exposure to pheromones

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Group Differences in Pubertal Maturation

Typically studied by comparing average age of menarche
Across countries
Age at menarche lower when not malnourished (Ex: Africa and United States)

Among SES groups within a country

Affluent girls reach menarche before disadvantaged girls

Within same populations but different eras

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Group Differences in Pubertal Maturation

Secular trend (group trend within same region)
Leveling off in industrialized nations
Better sanitation, control of infectious diseases

U.S. average age of menarche has not changed in 30 years Onset of puberty has continued to occur earlier among AfricanAmerican girls in the United States
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Group Differences in Pubertal Maturation

Secular trend (group trend within same region)
Leveling off in industrialized nations
Better sanitation, control of infectious diseases

U.S. average age of menarche has not changed in 30 years Onset of puberty has continued to occur earlier among AfricanAmerican girls in the United States
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The biological changes of puberty can affect the adolescents behavior in at least three ways
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How Do Researchers Study The Psychosocial Consequences of Puberty?

Groups compared at different stages of puberty
Cross-sectional study design Longitudinal study design
Same adolescents tracked over time

Comparison of early vs. late maturers

When interested in the effects of pubertal timing on psychosocial outcomes
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The Immediate Impact of Puberty

Self-esteem varies by gender and ethnicity Adolescent moodiness
More fluctuations throughout the day than adults Not solely due to hormones

Changes in patterns of sleep

Delayed phase preference and later melatonin secretion Environmental influences and school start times

Family relationships Peer relationships

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The Immediate Impact of Puberty

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The Psychosocial Impact of Specific Pubertal Events

Most adolescents react positively to pubertal changes
especially secondary sex characteristics

Reactions to menarche are varied

but less negative than in the past

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Less known about boys reactions to first ejaculations

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Psychosocial Impact of Early or Late Maturation: Boys

Perception of being an early or late maturer is more important in affecting ones feelings than the reality Pros of early maturation
Popularity, better self-esteem More responsible, cooperative, sociable later in adulthood

Cons of early maturation

More drug and alcohol use, precocious sexual activity, greater impact of victimization Less creative, more humorless in later adulthood

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Psychosocial Impact of Early or Late Maturation: Girls

Compared to early maturing boys, early maturing girls have more difficulties
Maturational deviance hypothesis Developmental readiness hypothesis Cultural and contextual factors (valuing thinner body types)

Pros of early maturation

Popularity with boys

Cons of early maturation

Heavier and shorter stature later in life Precocious sexual activity, lowered self-image, higher rates of depression, eating disorders, anxiety
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Psychosocial Impact of Early or Late Maturation: Girls

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Eating Disorders
Body Dissatisfaction
Higher among early maturing girls Puberty brings rapid increase in body fat for girls

Obesity
The most common eating disorder among adolescents Basal Metabolism Rate

Disordered eating
Patterns of eating, attitudes, and behaviors that are unhealthy.
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Eating Disorders
Deviation from the ideal physique can lead to loss of selfesteem and other problems in the adolescents self-image Studies of magazines, 1970 to 1990
Ideal body shape became slimmer Ideal body shape became less curvaceous
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Eating Disorders: Bulimia & Anorexia Nervosa

Adolescents with these eating disorders have an extremely distorted body image Bulimia
Eating binges; force themselves to vomit to avoid weight gain 3% of adolescents are genuine bulimics

Anorexia
Starve themselves to keep weight down Fewer than one-half of 1% of adolescents

Bulimia and Anorexia 10 times more common among females

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Physical Health and Health Care in Adolescence

Adolescent health care needs differ from those of children and adults Health compromising and health enhancing behaviors School-based health centers
10% are family planning visits Most visits involve injuries, acute illnesses and mental health
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Physical Health and Health Care in Adolescence

PARADOX: Adolescence is a healthy period of the lifespan But nearly 1 in 15 adolescents experiences at least one disabling chronic illness:
mental disorders (depression) respiratory illnesses (asthma) muscular and skeletal disorders (arthritis)

Threats to health have psychosocial causes (not natural causes)

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Adolescent Mortality
Today
45% of teen deaths due to car accidents and other unintentional injuries 30% of teen deaths due to homicide and suicide

50 Years Ago
Most deaths from illness and disease
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