The pharmacy history 3

Dr. Addis Asaad

The Hebrews

The Hebrews
The Biblical Hebrews may have inherited a number of their beliefs from ancient Mesopotamian cultures, among them a conviction that disease was divine punishment and therefore a mark of sin.

Assyro-Babylonian taboos against close proximity to the sick were also continued by the Hebrews in their isolation of the unclean, who, in addition to the diseased, included the dead, a potential source of soul transference among the Mesopotamian peoples.

The problem here is that to the best of our knowledge, the ancient Hebrews simply didnt write any medical textbooks per say. Or at least, none that we have been able to locate. Thus, we are forced to rely solely on what is written in the Old Testament for information.

Fortunately for us, several of the writings within the Old Testament are of-and-by themselves, medical texts. Some sections, also act as a sort of Materia Medica. Leviticus chapter 14 (dealing with infectious skin diseases) serves as a good example, one which sounds like it came right out of an apothecary shop

Hebrew reliance on strict codes which controlled virtually all behavior was another Mesopotamian characteristic. Furthermore, the assignment of the Sabbath as a day of rest, observed by orthodox Jews even today, matches the severe Assyrian restriction of activities on the seventh day of the week, when the king engaged in no official business and physicians were not even permitted to treat the sick.

 To the ancient Hebrew it was essentially Jehovah, God Himself, who was to be placated as the giver and taker of health. In the same vein, contamination was not a matter of evil spirits having passed from the sick to the well but a sign of one's spiritual impurity from having violated the prohibition against touching the unclean, the sick person being punished by God.

Hygienic laws were to be obeyed for religious and disciplinary rather than medical reasons. These regulations reached into virtually every activity: isolation of the sick, time and location of burial, frequency of sexual intercourse, washing before meals, bathing after coitus and menstruation, slaughtering of animals, and preparation of food.

Plagues and epidemics were mentioned often in the Bible, with special attention given to leprosy, which was feared and isolated, but, as among the Assyro-Babylonians, many skin diseases considered to be leprosy probably were not. There were, however, references to many other types of illnesses and symptoms in the Bible.

Hebrew medical practices were much like those of the peoples among whom they lived. A number of medications were mentioned in the Bible, such as mandrake, balsams, gums, spices, oils, and possibly narcotics, but the relatively limited list of drugs recorded is remarkable when one considers the abundant materia medica of Mesopotamian and Egyptian physicians.

There was little reference to surgery in the Bible except for ritual circumcision, and that may have come from the Egyptians. Midwives were spoken of, but their ministrations seem not to have extended beyond comforting and attendance.

For instance, the Talmudists relied on the humoral theories of the Greeks, which attributed disease to the imbalance of the four humors of the body: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. Similarly, they followed Greek philosophers in specifying the four elements of the universe as air, fire, earth, and water.

In terms of surgery, the Talmud discussed the means of reducing dislocations and the management of injuries to many organs. Sometimes detailed techniques were described, as, for instance, the methods for dealing with an imperforate anus whereby, after oiling and sunburning

a small incision would be made over the spot where the anus should have been. Of course, circumcision remained the "seal of the covenant" to be performed on all boys at a prescribed time after birth.

a small incision would be made over the spot where the anus should have been. Of course, circumcision remained the "seal of the covenant" to be performed on all boys at a prescribed time after birth.

The doctors who limited themselves entirely to surgical procedures were referred to as uman. There were probably also veterinary surgeons since one was mentioned in the Talmud by name.

The precepts and prohibitions of Biblical times on personal and public hygiene were continued in the Talmud. "Physical cleanliness is conducive to spiritual purity" (Avoda Zara in the Jerusalem Talmud). For instance, the leper continued to be regarded as unclean and his clothing was to be burned.

The later Hebrews apparently recognized that certain diseases were transmissible through contaminated objects, and women, as in the Bible, were unclean and could not participate in religious or sexual activity until seven days after cessation of the menstrual flow. The restrictions on preparing food were maintained.

In much later times, during the Middle Ages, Jews were to be a repository of Greek and Roman learning. In the period of Islamic supremacy they acted as a bridge between the Muslim East and Christian West.

The Renaissance

The Renaissance
Renaissance was the beginning of the modern period. Changes which had begun in the European middle ages were stimulated further by contacts with other cultures. In 1453, Constantinople (Istanbul) fell to the conquering Turks and the remnants of the Greek scholarly community, carrying their books and knowledge with them.

These changes resulted in Reinterpretation of the old classical themes, Exploration of the sea, Exploration of the laboratory. The time was ripe for casting off the old concepts of diseases and drugs of Galen. New drugs were arriving from far off lands, which were unknown to the ancients.

Printers , after where fulfilling the demand for religious book turned to medical & pharmaceutical works. Valerius cordus Dispensatorium became the official standard for the preparation of medicines in the city of Nuremburg and generally is considered the first pharmacopeia Erwin Ackerknect Observed a short history of medicine.

Paracelsus
He was the most important advocate of chemically prepared drugs from crude plant and mineral substances, yet he believed firmly that the collection of those substance, should be determined by astrology .He wrote his own works in his native language rather than Latin.

He develop chemical processes (distillation) to isolate the healing properties of a drugs. Eventually the efficacy of these drugs become known & appeared in books of medicine. Here where chemistry were adopted to make one of humanity most ancient tools of drugs

Johann Hartman was the 1st professor of chemistry at a European University.

Carl Scheele discovered oxygen in 1773.

The cooperation between pharmaceutical guilds & government also led to standardization of medicine through publication of books called pharmacopeias.

In 1499 the guide of physicans and pharmcists of Florence sanctioned the Nuavo receptario as their book of standards. Pharmacists standard investigation of botanical drugs during 1700s -1800s. Discoveries before the late 1700 was by trial and error till.

. Schelle (1784) extracted several plants such as citric acid. Friedrich Serturner extracted morphine from crude opium.