Chapter 2 The Nature of Molecules

The Nature of Molecules

Element substance that cannot be degraded by ordinary means into a substance having different properties. Matter any substance that has mass and occupies space. All substances are composed of matter, and . . . All matter is composed of atoms.

The Structure of Atoms

Atom the smallest unit of matter that is unique to a particular element. Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles:
Protons Neutrons Electrons

Atoms contd
Atoms (typically) have one electron for each proton. Atoms are neutral if the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Atomic number Atomic mass

Isotopes
Isotopes Most atoms in nature exist as different isotopes. Isotopes have the same atomic number, but differ in mass. All isotopes of an element interact with other atoms in the same way. Carbon can have six (12C), seven (13C), or eight (14C) neutrons.

Electrons
Electrons determine the chemical behavior of atoms!

Electrons
Electrons circle the nucleus of an atom in orbitals. Orbitals volumes of space around the nucleus in which electrons are likely to be at any instant. The shell closest to the nucleus has ____ orbital holding one or two electrons, maximum of ____. The next shell can have ____ orbitals with ____ electrons per orbital, holding a maximum of ____ electrons.

Electron behavior influences atom bonding

Atoms may acquire extra electrons . . . Share them . . . Or donate them to another atom. The outcome depends on the number and arrangement of electrons in an atom.

Atoms will react with other atoms only when there are vacancies in their outermost electron shells.
An atom is _____ when its outermost electron shell is completely full. An atom is _____ when its outermost electron shell is only partially full.

Ions
Ion an atom in which the number of protons does not equal the number of electrons. The atom becomes electrically charged. Anion Cation

Oxidation-Reduction
Oxidation-reduction reactions electron transfers between molecules.
Oxidation Reduction

The Periodic Table

Arranged in order by atomic number, the elements exhibit a predictable pattern. The chemical behavior of each atom is governed by the number of electrons in the outer shell.

The Periodic Table

Non-reactive element (inert element) - All orbitals are filled with the maximum number of electrons (helium, neon, argon). Highly reactive elements elements with seven electrons in their outermost orbitals. These elements tend to gain electrons (flourine, chlorine, bromine). Also reactive are elements with one electron in their outer orbital. They tend to lose electrons (sodium, potassium) Octet rule rule of eight. Atoms tend to fill their orbitals

Chemical Bonds
Chemical bond a union between the electron structures of an atom. Chemical bonding occurs when two particles can exchange or combine their outer electrons in such a way that is energetically favorable. There are three types of chemical bonds:
Ionic Covalent Hydrogen

Ionic Bonds
Ionic bond

Covalent Bonds
Covalent bond

Polar Covalent Bond

Polar covalent bond

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bond a bond in which an atom interacts weakly with a hydrogen atom already taking part in a polar covalent bond. Hydrogen bonds are weak, but . . . The additive effects of many weak interactions can create strength.

Properties of Water
Polarity Stabilizes temperature Cohesion Good solvent

Polarity of Water
Water is a polar molecule because of the slightly negative charge at the oxygen end of the molecule, and a slightly positive charge at the hydrogen end. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other. Each hydrogen bond is relatively weak, but the cumulative effects of many of them create strength.

Water Stabilizes Temperature

Water stabilizes temperature because it can absorb considerable heat before its temperature changes.
High specific heat
Specific heat the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance 1oC.

High heat of vaporization

Heat of vaporization the amount of heat required to convert liquid water into vapor.

Cohesion
Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together. Cohesion imparts surface tension at the surface of lakes and ponds. Cohesion allows plants to pull water through the root system.

Water is a Good Solvent

Water is capable of dissolving a wide range of substances. Polar water molecules are attracted to ionic compounds AND polar compounds (these compounds will dissolve in water). Hydrophilic Hydrophobic

Acids, Bases, and Buffers

The pH scale a scale that indicates the concentration of H+ in a solution.
pH a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in a solution. The ______ the H+ concentration, the _____ the pH. The scale extends from 0 (acidic) to 7 (neutral) to 14 (basic).

Acids vs. Bases

Acid
Acidic solutions have pH values <7.

Base

Basic solutions have pH values > 7.

Buffers
Buffer molecules combine with, or release hydrogen ions to prevent drastic changes in pH. Bicarbonate is one of the bodys major buffers
If the blood becomes too acidic, bicarbonate accepts hydrogen ions (H+) to form carbonic acid. HCO3- + H+ H2CO3 If the blood becomes too basic, carbonic acid releases hydrogen ions that combine with the excess hydroxide ions (OH-) forming water. H2CO3 + OHHCO3- + H2O

Works Cited
Raven, Peter H., George B. Johnson, Jonathan B. Losos, and Susan R. Singer. Biology. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. Starr, Cecie. Basic Concepts in Biology. 4th ed. Brooks/Cole, 2000. Diagrams and Photos: Raven, Peter H., George B. Johnson, Jonathan B. Losos, and Susan R. Singer. Digital Content Manager 2.0. Biology. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.