Bacteriology

Lecture 2

Bacterial Structure, Classification

and Growth Requirements
 Part I.Bacterial Structures
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Classify microorganisms according to their
morphology and distinct characteristics
• Differentiate between prokaryote and
eukaryote
• Identify the different structures and
functions of a bacterial cell
• Describe bacterial morphology
• Point out ways of classifying bacteria
 DIVISIONS OF MICROBIOLOGY

1. VIROLOGY : Viruses
smallest intact infectious
agents
intracellular reproduction only
consist of:
RNA or DNA core
Protein coat
glycoprotein envelope
 DIVISIONS OF MICROBIOLOGY

2. PARASITOLOGY

______________:
• Multicellular parasites/worms
PROTOZOOLOGY : ___________
• Unicellular eukaryotic
organisms
3. MYCOLOGY : Fungi
• 2 Forms: _______, _______
• thick cell wall
• Develop from spores or fragments of hyphae

4. PHYCOLOGY : ________
• Mainly aquatic
• contain chlorophyll
• Some produce neurotoxins which can
concentrate in fish / shellfish and cause
poisoning in humans
5. BACTERIOLOGY : Bacteria

• Unicellular, Prokaryotic
• Free living
• Contain both RNA and DNA
• Multiply by _____________
• Eubacteria ; Archaebacteria
 BACTERIA ARCHAEA

• Prokaryotic • Prokaryotic
• Peptidoglycan cell • Lack peptidoglycan
walls • Live in extreme
• characterized by environments
shape, motility &
metabolism

Figure 1.1a
 BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY

• SIZE: 0.2 – 2.0 µm by 1-10 µm

• SHAPE: spherical, rod-shaped, spiral
• ARRANGEMENT
COCCI (Spherical)
Diplococci
Staphylococci
Streptococci
Tetrad
Octad
BACILLI (Rod-shaped)

Singles
Diplobacilli
Streptobacilli
Coccobacilli
SPIRALS
Palisade
Spirilla
Spirochete
 Comparison Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Characteristic Prokaryotes
Size of cell Typically 0.2-2.0  m in diameter
Nucleus No nuclear membrane or nucleoli
(nucleoid)
Membrane-enclosed organelles Absent
Flagella Consist of two protein building
blocks
Glycocalyx /Capsule Present as a capsule or slime
layer
Cell wall Usually present; chemically
complex (typical bacterial cell
wall includes peptidoglycan)
Plasma membrane No carbohydrates and generally
lacks sterols
Cytoplasm No cytosketeton or cytoplasmic
streaming
Ribosomes Smaller size (70S)
Chromosome (DNA) arrangement Single circular chromosome;
lacks histones
Sexual reproduction No meiosis; transfer of DNA
fragments only (conjugation)
Eukaryotes
Typically 10-100  m in diameter
True nucleus, consisting of
nuclear membrane & nucleoli
Present; examples include
lysosomes, Golgi complex,
endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria & chloroplasts
Complex; consist of multiple
microtubules
Present in some cells that lack a
cell wall
When present, chemically
simple
Sterols and carbohydrates that
serve as receptors present
Cytoskeleton; cytoplasmic
streaming
Larger size (80S); smaller size
(70S) in organelles
Multiple linear chromosomes
with histones
Involves meiosis
General Structure
of a Prokaryote
 A. Flagella

PARTS
 filament
 Hook
 basal body

 Flagella rotates to move

 Flagellin (H Ags)
 Purpose: ___________________
 Flagellar Arrangement
1. Monotrichous : _______
flagellum at one end
2. ____________ : small
bunches arising from one
end of cell
3. Amphitrichous:
____________________
4. ____________ : flagella
dispersed over surface of
cell

Figure 4.7
Internal Flagella
• Also known as: ___________________
• Periplasmic filaments
• enclosed between cell wall & cell
membrane of spirochetes
• motility
B. Appendages for Attachment
FIMBRIAE

• fine hairlike bristles from the

cell surface
• function in adhesion to other
cells and surfaces
 Pili
• Appendages for Mating rigid
tubular structure
• Made up of: __________
• Found in ____________ cells
only
Functions:
 joins bacterial cells for DNA
transfer
 adhesion
C. Bacterial Surface Coating
Glycocalyx
• external to the cell wall
• Made of sugars and/or proteins

FUNCTIONS
 ________________
 ________________
 ________________
 Glycocalyx

2 TYPES:
1.capsule
_____________________

2.slime layer
_____________________
 The Cell Envelope: Cell Wall
• peptidoglycan

• N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
• N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
• Linked by ____________

• provides strong, flexible support to the

bacterial cell
• Maintains cell integrity
Peptidoglycan

Figure 4.13a
 4 Groups Based on Cell Wall
Composition
1. Gram positive cells
2. Gram negative cells
3. Bacteria without cell walls
4. Bacteria with chemically unique cell walls
Gram Positive Cell Wall
Consists of :
 thick peptidoglycan
 tightly bound acidic polysaccharides
 cell membrane

Retain crystal violet and stain ________

 Gram Negative Cell Wall
Consists of:
 outer membrane with lipopolysaccharide
 thin shell of peptidoglycan
 periplasmic space
 inner membrane  LPS
 endotoxin
 Lose crystal violet and
 may function as
stain _______ from receptors and blocking
_________ . immune response
 Protective structure while  contains ________
providing some flexibility proteins in upper layer
and sensitivity to lysis
 The Gram Stain
• Differential stain
Gram-negative
Gram-positive

• Important basis of bacterial classification and

identification
• Practical aid in diagnosing infection and
guiding drug treatment
 Atypical Cell Walls
• Some bacteria lack typical cell wall structure
Mycobacterium and Nocardia
Gram-positive cell wall structure with lipid
____________.

• basis for ____________________

• Some have no cell wall

Mycoplasma
cell wall is stabilized by ___________
 Cytoplasm
• dense gelatinous solution of
sugars, amino acids, & salts
• 70-80% water
• serves as solvent for materials
used in all cell functions
Chromosome Plasmids
• single, circular, • Self-replicating,
double-stranded small circles of DNA
DNA molecule • may encode
• contains all the antibiotic
genetic information resistance,
required by a cell tolerance to toxic
• DNA is tightly coiled metals, enzymes &
around a protein toxins
 Inclusions &
Ribosomes Granules
• intracellular storage
• prokaryotic differ from
bodies
eukaryotic ribosomes
in size & number of
proteins Examples:
• site of ________ Glycogen
synthesis gas vesicles
• all cells have carboxysomes
ribosomes Polyphosphate
granules
 Endospores
• Resting cells
• Resistant to heat, radiation
& chemicals
• Examples: _________,
_________

___________:
Endospore formation
___________:
Return to vegetative state
Endospores

• resistance linked to high levels

of calcium & some acids
• longevity verges on immortality
• Control: pressurized steam at
120oC for 20-30 minutes
Bacterial Morphology
 Part II.
Classification of Bacteria
Learning outcomes
Students should be able to:
• Understand the basic principles of microbial
classification systems.
• Be familiar with structural and biological
characteristics to classify bacteria
• List the genetic approaches that can be used in
identification and classification of bacteria
Interrelated areas of taxonomy:
• Classification
– the arrangement of organisms into taxonomic groups
on the basis of similarities or relationships.
• ________________
- naming an organism by international rules according to
its characteristics.
• Identification
(1) to isolate and distinguish desirable organisms from
undesirable ones;
(2) To verify the authenticity or special properties of a
culture, or in a clinical setting;
(3) To isolate and identify the causative agent of a disease
 Classification Systems
Numerical Taxonomy
• the computer clusters different strains based on
the frequency with which they share traits.
Phylogenetic Classification System
• Groups reflect genetic similarity and
evolutionary relatedness
Phenetic/Phenotypic Classification System
• Groups are based on convenient, observable
characteristics.
Useful Properties in Classification

•Colony morphology
•Cell shape & arrangement
•Cell wall structure (Gram staining)
•Special cellular structures
•Biochemical characteristics
 Levels of Classification

• Kingdom (not used by most bacteriologists)

• Phylum/Division
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus (plural: Genera)
• Species (both singular & plural)
Species:
 Classic definition: A collection of microbial
strains that share many properties and differ
significantly from other groups of strains.

 Species are identified by comparison with

known “type strains” -- well-characterized
pure cultures - references for the identification
of unknowns.
Strain:
• A population of microbes descended from a
single individual or pure culture.
• Different strains represent genetic variability
within a species.

_________: Strains that differ in biochemical or

physiological differences.
_________: Strains that vary in morphology.
_________: Strains that vary in their antigenic
properties
 Nomenclature
Scientific name (Systematic Name)

• Species name is never abbreviated.

• A genus name may be used alone to indicate
a genus group.
• A species name is never used alone.
• Common or descriptive names (trivial names)
 Types of Diversity

• Metabolic diversity

• Structural diversity

• Morphological diversity

• Genetic diversity
 Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
• main resource for determining the identity
of bacteria species, utilizing every characterizing
aspect.
• Use successive "key" features to narrow down
identification
• Primary emphasis is phylogenetic, not phenetic
Dichotomous Key
 Part III.
Physical and Nutritional Growth
Requirements of Bacteria

• Identify the growth requirements of bacteria

• Illustrate and discuss the growth curve with
emphasis on the events happening per
stage
• Appreciate the importance of the
physiological and nutritional requirements for
bacterial growth
PHYSIOLOGY
 study of vital life processes of organisms
& how these processes normally function in
living organisms

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
substances required for energy generation
and cellular biosynthesis.
chemicals and elements of the
environment that are utilized for bacterial
growth
 Table 1. Major elements, their sources and functions in bacterial cells.

% of
Element dry Source Function
weight

organic compounds or
Carbon 50 Main constituent of cellular material
CO2

H2O, organic Constituent of cell material and cell water; O2 is electron acceptor in
Oxygen 20
compounds, CO2, and O2 aerobic respiration

NH3, NO3, organic

Nitrogen 14 Constituent of amino acids, nucleic acids nucleotides, and coenzymes
compounds, N2

H2O, organic
Hydrogen 8 Main constituent of organic compounds and cell water
compounds, H2

inorganic phosphates Constituent of nucleic acids, nucleotides, phospholipids, LPS, teichoic

Phosphorus 3
(PO4) acids

SO4, H2S, So, organic

Sulfur 1 Constituent of cysteine, methionine, glutathione, several coenzymes
sulfur compounds

Potassium 1 Potassium salts Main cellular inorganic cation and cofactor for certain enzymes

Magnesium 0.5 Magnesium salts Inorganic cellular cation, cofactor for certain enzymatic reactions

Inorganic cellular cation, cofactor for certain enzymes and a component of

Calcium 0.5 Calcium salts
endospores

Component of cytochromes and certain nonheme iron-proteins and a

Iron 0.2 Iron salts
cofactor for some enzymatic reactions
TYPES OF ORGANISMS BASED ON PHYSIOLOGIC
REQUIREMENTS:

Nutritional type Energy source

Phototroph
Chemotroph
a.Chemolithotrophs Inorganic
chemicals

b.Chemoorganotrophs Organic
chemicals
Autotroph
Heterotroph
 Metabolic Diversity Among Organisms
Nutritional Energy Carbon Example
type source source
Photoauto- Light CO2 Oxygenic:
troph ______________
Anoxygenic:
______________
Photohetero- Light Green, purple
troph nonsulfur bacteria.
Chemoauto- Chemical CO2 Iron-oxidizing, sulfur,
troph hydrogen, nitrifying
bacteria.
Chemohetero- Chemical Most bacteria,
troph fermentative bacteria,
animals, protozoa,
fungi.
Growth Factors
• are essential substances that the organism is
unable to synthesize

• required in small amounts for biosynthesis

CATEGORIES:
 Purines and pyrimidines
 Amino acids
 Vitamins
 OXYGEN REQUIREMENT
A. AEROBES
• Obligate Aerobes
• Facultative Anaerobes
B. ANAEROBES
• Obligate Anaerobes
• Facultative Aerobes
• Aerotolerant Anaerobes
C. MICROAEROPHILES
D. CAPNOPHILES
 Superoxide
Group Catalase Peroxidase
dismutase
Obligate
aerobes &
most
facultative
anaerobes
Most
aerotolerant
anaerobes
Obligate
anaerobes
@ Don’t forget to fill in the blanks!
THERMAL REQUIREMENT
PSYCHROPHILES
prefer cold temperatures
cause food spoilage
_________________
MESOPHILES
prefer moderate temperature
THERMOPHILES
prefer high temperatures
________________
 Water

• the solvent in which the molecules of life are

dissolved
• Supply depends on: relative humidity and water
activity (Aw).
• Aw = affected by the presence of solutes that
are dissolved in the water.
• The higher the solute concentration of a
substance, the lower is the Aw and vice-versa.
 Water and Salinity
• SALT: only common solute in nature that occurs
over a wide concentration range

• ____________: microorganisms that require some

NaCl for growth.
• Mild halophiles
• Moderate halophiles
• Extreme halophiles

• _____________ = grows at moderate salt

concentrations, even though they grow best in the
absence of NaCl.
• Xerophiles = organisms which live in ___________ .
Lowering water activity prevents bacterial growth; the basis for
preservation of foods by drying (in sunlight or by evaporation) or
by addition of high concentrations of salt or sugar.

Movement across membranes:

_________diffusion :
• Movement of a solute from an area
of high concentration to an area of
low concentration
_________ diffusion :
• Solute combines with transporter
protein in membrane
 Movement Across Membranes

Osmosis
– Mov’t of H2O across a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of
↑ H2O conc’n to an area of ↓ H2O.

Osmotic pressure
– pressure req’d. to stop H2O mov’t
across the membrane.

Figure 4.18a
 pH REQUIREMENT

the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

• ACIDOPHILE
• NEUTROPHILE
• ALKALIPHILE
 Nutritional and Physical
Requirements for Bacteria Growth.
• Major and trace elements
• Carbon and energy sources
• Growth factors
• Oxygen, Carbon dioxide
• Temperature
• Water / Moisture
• pH requirement
Microbial Growth