Birth rate: Number of live babies born per 1,000 people each year Death rate: Number of deaths

per 1,000 people each year Natural increase: The rate at which the population naturally increases. Calculated using the difference between the birth and death rates Optimum population: The correct size population to be able to be sustained by the areas resources without lowering anybodys quality of life Migration: The movement of people from one region or country to another Emigration: Is people (emigrants) leaving a region or country Immigration: Is people (immigrants) entering a region of country Urban growth: The expansion of towns and cities so that they cover more land, as well as gaining larger populations Mega-city: A city with over 10 million inhabitants Millionaire city: A city with over 1 million inhabitants Brownfield sites: Land which has been built on before Doughnut effect: When too many businesses move away from the CBD there is a danger of leaving a dead heart in the city centre. Carbon-neutral home: Homes where carbon emissions dont add to the net amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Stage 1

Stage 2 Early expanding

Stage 3 Late expanding

Stage 4

Stage 5

High fluctuating

Low Decline fluctuating

Birth rate
Death rate Population

Stage 1 (high fluctuating): -A region before economic development -Birth and death rates are high which results in a stable population Stage 2 (early expanding): -A region beginning to develop -Death rates fall (due to better medicine etc.) -Birth rates remain high -Population increases Stage 3 (late expanding): -Death rates continue to fall -Birth rates begin to fall (better education, contraception and family planning) -The population continues to increase, but more slowly Stage 4 (low fluctuating): -Low birth and death rates due to a higher standard of living -Shows good education and more women in education (choose to have fewer, or no children) -The population remains stable Stage 5 (decline): -Death rates are slightly higher than birth rates -Medicine keeps people alive longer which results in an ageing population -Fewer people in the reproductive age range, so birth rates fall

Not enough schools

Deforestation Not enough land

Food shortages

Effects of overpopulation in rural areas

Lack of clean water and sanitation

Overgrazing and over-cultivation

Inadequate health services

Growth of shanty towns

Overcrowded schools

Unemployment

Effects of overpopulation in urban areas

Overcrowding

Inadequate health services Traffic congestion

Problems of waste disposal

Better employment prospects

Better education for all Improved health care lowering infant mortality rate

Later age of marriage

Lower birth rates

Higher literacy rate

More women in paid work Migration to cities Family planning information and advice

Raising standards of living Contraception more widely available

Reasons for ageing populations: -Increasing life expectancy -Low birth rates Consequences of ageing populations: -Growing market for leisure industries as older people spend money on holidays -House prices in popular retirement places may rise -The cost of supporting the elderly through state pensions increase -A great demand on medical services and long-term nursing care Solutions to ageing populations: -Raising the age of retirement so old people work for longer and pensions are paid later -Raising taxes on the working population to pay for care for the elderly -Providing incentives to encourage people to have more children -Encouraging immigration of young, skilled adults to fill the gaps in the labour market

Push factors: -Low wages so low standard of living -Lack of job opportunities -Poor quality of life -Lack of amenities (e.g. hospitals and schools) -Conflict (e.g. civil war) -Natural hazards (e.g. drought or volcano) Pull factors: -High wages and improved standard of living -Improved job opportunities -Better amenities and services -Improved quality of life -Better environment, not natural hazards -Freedom from oppression

Pull factors: -The hope of work and the chance to make money -Better schools -Healthcare -Entertainment Push factors: -Poverty -Fewer jobs, except in farming -Fewer schools -Less entertainment, especially for younger people

Traffic congestion

Inadequate power supplies

Overcrowded schools

Problems caused by urbanisation

Overstretched healthcare services

Not enough housing

Not enough jobs Waste disposal

Self-help schemes: People build a simple house and then, over time begin to improve upon it. This is only possible if theyre confident that theyre not likely to be randomly thrown off. People then need to be given legal ownership of the land City authorities may provides clean water, help with sanitation and waste collection, bus operators may start bus services and health centres may be built. These are a few of the ways in which areas that were previously dirty and illegal become better quality and legal. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs): Such as Oxfam and Save the Children encourage people to help themselves through micro-credit schemes. This is where the companies provide small grants or loans to poor people who would be rejected by the banks. NGOs also provide advice and training. This training, together with the loan helps people to start their own businesses (e.g. a market)

Push factors: -The cities are busy and noisy -Traffic congestion in cities -Undesirable schools -House prices are high in the cities -The elderly dont want to spend retirement in the city -People dont want their children to grow up in the city Pull factors: -People are able to work at home due to advancement of technology -Nice houses with gardens are easily available -Good quality roads enable people to live in villages and travel to cities for work -People may enjoy the beauty of the countryside

Consequences of counter-urbanisation
Benefits: -More people to support local shops -Many old and derelict buildings are renovated -Opportunities for local businesses -Younger people settle in villages, creating a more balanced population structure Problems: -House prices increase -Green belt land may be built on -There are more cars which results in traffic and park problems -Main roads into the city become congested as people commute to work -Tensions may develop between the older residents and the newcomers

Aims of a green belt: -To prevent urban sprawl -Prevent towns and cities merging into each other -Protect the countryside -Encourage development within the town, not around it

Residential: Land used for housing Takes up the largest area Cities often have many different residential areas Open space: Land used for parks and playgrounds Spread throughout the city Derelict or unused land is open space and is often found in older, more central areas Commercial: Land used for shops, offices, banks and other businesses The biggest concentration is in the central business district (CBD) Green belt land

The CBD is the heart of the city, there are many high-rise buildings occupied by shops, offices, banks and other commercial functions. All these functions group together because the CBD is the most accessible part of the city. As a result of this, the land is more valuable. Because of the high cost of rent in the CBD you dont find some land uses such as : housing, industry and large areas of open space. The buildings are tall in order to maximise the amount of space. Pull factors: Accessibility: its easy for customers and employees to reach the businesses Many businesses benefit from locating near similar businesses (e.g. entertainment shops and comparison shops) Having a central address is prestigious and therefore attracts customers Push factors: Theres very little room for expansion Land prices are high Theres lots of traffic, noise and pollution Local government planning restrictions can restrict development Changes due to push and pull factors: New buildings, pedestrianized areas and one-way streets, shopping malls, new types of transport (e.g. trams), public open spaces and conversion of old buildings for a new use

The inner city usually lies close to the CBD and industrial parts. Its an area of poor quality, often with 19th century terraced housing. People of the inner city Low-income families (e.g. single parents, low-paid manual workers or unemployed people) Older people living on a state pension Black or Asian families Newcomers to the city such as students or migrants

 Detached houses Semi-detached houses Bungalows Flats There is such a variety of housing because different people need and can afford different sorts of houses. Building styles have changed in the last 100 years.
Outer-city council estates Theyre often built on greenfield sites. They usually have a mixture of high-rise and lowrise houses together with a shopping centre, school and open space. In some cities these are popular and successful but in some they have become rundown housing areas with the residents feeling isolated from the central parts of the city

This is where the town and countryside merge. It usually has both urban and rural land uses. Changes to the rural-urban fringe The rural-urban fringe is often targeted for new developments (e.g. housing estates, shopping malls, office parks or waste disposal facilities) since the land is often cheaper and more readily available. Main roads and motorways can make this area more accessible and greenfield sites are preferred by developers. Decision makers have the job of balancing the need for new developments with sustainability.

Impact of new developments: Countryside is lost as the town spreads outwards. This land could have been used for recreation or farming Traffic increases, causing more pollution and congestion Inner city areas and brownfield sites remain undeveloped as its easier and cheaper develop greenfield sites in the rural-urban fringe

Ways to make cities more sustainable: Build zero-carbon homes and offices Use local food supplies instead of transporting food across the world Involve local people in decision making Make sure people live closer to their work so they can walk or cycle Improve public transport so people do not use cars so much Use brownfield sites for new developments so derelict land is re-used Reduce waste by re-using products such as bottles and plastic containers and recycle glass, paper and textiles Provide more open space and greenery to improve quality of life Use renewable energy sources such as wind, water or solar power Zero-carbon living Roughly 25% of UKs carbon emissions come from homes. There are ways to reduce this: Improving insulation and installing double glazing to reduce heat loss Encourage people to be more careful with how much energy they use , for example by switching to low-energy light bulbs, turning off standby switches and turning down heating.

Benefits of eco-towns: The towns are planned to be sustainable They will provide thousands of new houses, many of which will be affordable They help tackle climate change by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases Disadvantages: They will be built of greenfield sites, using up valuable countryside and green belt land Not enough houses will be built to make a significant difference They will generate more traffic which will generate more carbon emissions How it all works: Houses will be zero-carbon and generate their own energy from renewable sources (e.g. solar or wind). The towns will have smart meters to track energy use, community heat sources and charging points for electric cars. About 40% of the town will be parks, playgrounds and gardens. There will be efficient public transport, cycle routes and footpaths, and shops and a primary school within easy walk of every single home

Hierarchy of shopping centres in a town

One major shopping centre in CBD

Several large suburban centres

Many neighbourhood shopping centres

Changes: More people have more money to spend (disposable income) Many more families have a car, giving them access to new shopping centres Electrical appliances such as freezers and microwave oven means people buy food for several days or weeks in advance and no longer buy fresh food every day More women work and have less time to shop every day than in the past