Skeletal remains

Skeletal poses a typical and classical problem in forensic medicine to identify. Skeletal remains may be whole but usually they are incomplete. Many techniques are employed ranging from anatomy to radiology and archeology to dentistry to identify intact or decomposed bodies. Recognition is usually easy by shape, texture and especially weight. Bones made up by plastic are light weight.
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Skeletal remains Bones are important because they can remain intact for centuries like hairs. There are two major categories.
1.

Allotting the bones to general categories based on species, race, stature and date. Comparative studies: Where the date of bones is matched against ante mortem data derived from those people who might be potential victim.

2.

General categories of skeletal remains

Objectives: 1. Are they bones? 2. Are they human origin? 3. What is the sex? 4. What is the stature? 5. What is the race? 6. What is the age? 7. How long they have been dead or concealed? 8. What was the cause of death?
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Are the remains actual bones?

This is not a factitious question. Many times people /police bring bones made up of plastic, fiber glass which they thought as bones. The problem is more complicated when these are mixes with actual bones usually of animal origin.
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Are the bones of human origin

Deciding of human origin is usually easy.

Small slender bones should be excluded e.g. hen, duck and turkey thigh bones cannot be mistaken as human metatarsal bones.
Small bones poses a problem as they are like human digits. Special problem in differentiating bones of bear paw from human due to close resemblance. Fragments or incomplete are difficult to identify. If ends of long bones are present then it is easy to identify. Cylindrical segments of central shaft is difficult to identify. Burned bones also poses great difficulty added to which is heat shrinkage and /or distortion.

Histological examination
Species differences to exclude human
origin at least.

Herversion architecture is difficult to

identify in many animals.

Serological investigation
When the bones are too small fragments then serological tests should be applied. Species specific proteins must be extracted from the bones into solution then they are tested against the specific antisera prepared by immunizing animals (Usually rabbits) against a range of animal proteins usually derived from blood. The test is essentially seeking plasma concentration within the bone. Disadvantage is that the proteins must be present in bones. Proteins are lost in burned or cremated bones and in those which has been buried for longer periods of time (A negative result is usually found after 10 years).
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Sex determination

Skull. Pelvis. Femur. Humerus. Sternum:

Females: Length of manubrium may be equal or exceeds half of the body. Males: Manubrium is less than half of its total length.
The accuracy range is somewhat around 80%

*(Some authorities noted that this is not a specific difference and in females it is 52:100 while in males it is 49:100, a narrow negligible margin!)

Sex determination

Male

Female
48.4(39-61) 78.6(59-95) 127(107-140)

Manubrium L: Body length:

51.7(41-73) 95.4(74-122)

Combined length: 147(131-180)

Scapula

It is more important in age determination. Sex: Vertical diameter of glenoid cavity in males 36 mm and less than 36 mm in females. Scapular height in males is 157 mm and in females less than 144 mm.

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Estimation of stature

It can be directly measured if whole skeleton is available and if correctly assembled. Allowance should be given for loss of cartilages in the joints and especially intravertebral discs.

Accuracy is not great in intact bodies. Length increases by 2.5 cm as compared to live height due to flaccidity.
Thickness of soft tissues of scalp and heel should be added. 4-8 cm on both sides should be kept in mind.

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Estimation of stature

If incomplete skeletal remains are available, then calculations to be made on the basis of one or more bones. Reliability varies from bone to bone and the most accurate one is femur.

For example: Male White: 63.05+131(Femur+Fibula) Male negro: 67.77+1.20(Femur +Fibula) [3.63 plus minus on both]
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Estimation of age from skeletal structure

It is more important than the stature and almost equally important as sex. Greater personal age gives less accurate results.

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Foetal and young adults

It is better to estimate age from intact body than from bones as these are easily and usually dispersed, lost and destroyed as compared to robust bones of adults. Major age indices are ossification centers but these are rarely available within few weeks. The bones have to be examined with cartilages attached with. Radiology provides more impressive results than the visual inspection. Biological variations changes total results from the printed tables, so much more experience is needed.
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Skeletal age in child and young adults

Appearance of ossification centers complete around 5
years. After this fusion of epiphysis acts as a calendar up to 25 years. Medial end of clavicle is usually the last to fuse. racial;, nutritional and other biological variations are present. maturity tends to be accelerated in hotter climates but late may be tempted by nutritional factors.
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Maturity does not follow with calendar age. Sexual, Females are almost always advance of males and

Cont:

There is marked range of closure dates in

epiphysis and years suggested are merely the mid.

Union is a process and not an event. It

may be quite different radiologically from gross inspection. It may also be slow in completion e.g. medial end of clavicle is last to fuse and it may fuse completely from 18-31 years.
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Skeletal aging in later years

Eruption of third molar tooth and fusion of last epiphysis completely in the middle of third decade. No major event occurs after 25 years so it is most difficult to estimate accurately. Most important marker after 25 years are:
Pubic sympyhsis: Opposing faces of the two pubic bones have specific changes and indicate better towards the age. Sternal rib pattern: Costochondrial junction.
(i) Calcification in first costal cartilage does not occur below 11 years. (ii). After 16 years male calcified much more quickly until 66 years.

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Cont:

Skull sutures
Fusion of skull sutures as an index of age has had a chequered history , beginning from first century AD. It is now generally discarded.

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Determination of age from skeletal remains

Main racial groups are:

1. Caucasians. 2. Negroids. 3. Mongoloids. All others are derived from these and indistinguishable. Skull offers the best determinant for race. Race can be determined in 90-95% cases.
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Cont:
Teeth: Most important in mongoloid race. Upper incisors are of Shovel shaped, posteriorly concaved and may be grooved on the rear surface. Japanese Chinese Eskimos Negroids Caucasians 93% 85% 68% 15% Almost absent

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Cont:

Dolicocephalic: Long headed in Negroids. Brachycephalic: Broad headed in mongoloids.

Whole range in Caucasoid (Mesaticephalic).

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Cont:

Orbit: It is lower and wide in Negroids, higher and round in mongoloids. Nasal aperture: Wide and prognathism of lower jaw is relatively marked in Negroids. Pelvis: Specialized measurements are required to differentiate between Caucasians and Negroids pelvis. Femur: \long bones especially femur is important to differentiate between Negroids and Caucasian races. It is straight in Negros, anteroposterior bowing is less.

Radius and tibia are longer in Negroids, and femur in females is more bent interiorly (more attractive!)
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Personal identification
Any idiosyncratic features which may give personal identity. This is just matching up of the features previously known. Anatomically shapes that can be matched by radiology, measurements/other means e.g. frontal sinus, craniometry, radiological bone architecture. Discrete abnormalities e.g. healing fractures, metal prosthesis or congenital defects. Excellent is the dental radiographs and records to match with. Lateral view of skull to match the measurements and especially intracranial diameters and profile of pituitary fossa.

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Frontal sinus identification

It was first suggested in 1921 and late ron adopted in 1935. Sinuses are well protected from almost all traumas except in extreme damage. Particularly useful in mutilated and burnt bodies. In 1935 it was identified by Poole that no two persons (not even the identical twins) have the same profile of these air spaces. Appears in 2nd year of life and mature in size in first 2 decades. Absent in 5% and present unilateral in 1%.

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Cont:

For comparison ante mortem antro-posterior radiograph must be available. The post mortem radiograph must be taken in the same position and with same projection to be used for superimposition. Forehead nose position is suggested with tube axis positioned at supra orbital margin. Scalloped upper margin is used fro comparison.
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Other radiographic methods

Hand and wrist films. First rib and clavicle. Craniometric method. When ante mortem x-rays are available especially of skull, throat, hip or shoulder these are of great help.
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Dating
If skeletal remains are of considerable antiquity, no further investigations are required even if the death was criminal, the culprit may long since have dead. It is around 70 years (perfect murder)

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Physical appearance

Recent: Soft tissue attached with presence of cartilage. In well protected bodies remains in good condition for many years. Density and feel: Slightly greasy to touch in recent bones, may be in old bones of decades. Recent bones are heavier than old bones due to increased density. On sawing: Hard to cut and cut ends are uniform through the whole thickness especially shaft of long bones.

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Physical appearance

On vigorous cutting, heat generated will give smell of organic material burning. In old bones collagen stroma will be lost, they become lighter and can be cut easily.

Old bones also shows a sandwich effect.

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Physical Test
It emits fluorescence in UV light when seen in dark back ground. It will mitt silvery blue tint right across the whole section in recent bones. As the bone ages, outer rim will give diminished tint and it confines more towards center.

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Other Physical Test

Density. Specific gravity. Ultrasound conditions. Thermal behavior. Photo superimposition technique. Reconstruction of the facial appearance from skull.

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Identification

Stature Height

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Identification

Bones found in soil.

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Identification

UV light

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Human skull

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UV light

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Forensic problem

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Burned bones.

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Herversion canals.

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Position of orbit Asian and Caucasian.

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Cremation chamber.

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Reconstruction from bony parts.

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Bony fragments.

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Skull parts.

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Unilateral frontal sinus.

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Reconstruction

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Reconstruction

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Reconstruction

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Reconstruction from skull and other few bones (Archeological)

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Frontal sinus

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Frontal sinus

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Ossification center

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Ossification center hands

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Ossification centers elbow

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Epiphysis

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Caucasian skull

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Mongoloid skull

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Right Mongoloid left Negroids

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Mongoloid

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Mongoloid

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Negroid

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Faces of different races

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Pubic

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Mass disastor

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Tattoos in identification

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Frontal sinus

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Pelvis

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Pelvis and pelvic

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Femur & humerus

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Sex difference in pelvis & pelvic

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Herversion canals

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UV bones

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