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Chapter

6
Job Design, Work, and Motivation

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The jobs that people perform in organizations are the building blocks of all organization structures.

A major cause of effective job performance is job design.

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Job Design
Job design process by which managers decide individual job tasks and authority Job redesign process by which managers reconsider what employees are expected to do

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The well-being of organizations and people relates to how well management designs jobs
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The issue of designing jobs has gone beyond the determination of the most efficient way to perform tasks

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Job Design and Quality of Work Life (QWL)

(1 of 4)

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Quality of work life (QWL) management philosophy that

Enhances the dignity of all workers Introduces cultural change in an organization Improves the physical and emotional wellbeing of employees

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Job Design and Quality of Work Life (QWL)

(2 of 4)

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Indicators of quality of work life include:

Accident rates Sick leave usage Employee turnover Number of grievances filed

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Job Design and Quality of Work Life (QWL)

(3 of 4)

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The continuing challenge to management is to provide for QWL and to improve production, quality, and efficiency through revitalization of business and industry
Job design attempts to:
identify the needs of employees and the organization remove obstacles in the workplace that frustrate those needs
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Job Design and Quality of Work Life (QWL)

(4 of 4)

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Managers hope that the results are jobs that:

fulfill important individual needs contribute to individual, group, and organizational effectiveness

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Conceptual Model of Job Design and Job Performance

Job context Social setting differences

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Job content

Job analysis

Job design

Perceived job content

Job performance

Job requirements

Individual differences

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Job Performance Outcomes

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Objective Outcomes Intrinsic and Extrinsic Outcomes

Personal Behavior Outcomes Job Satisfaction Outcomes

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Job Analysis (1 of 2)

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The purpose of job analysis is to provide an objective description of the job itself The result of job analysis is a job description

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Job Analysis (2 of 2)
Job analysis gathers and identifies information about three aspects of all jobs:
Job content
Job requirements

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Job context

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Job Content
factors that define the general nature of a job

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Refers to the activities required of the job

Can be described as
broad in scope, or narrow in scope

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Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

Describes job content in terms of:
1.

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2. 3.
4.

What the worker does in relation to data, people, and jobs What methods and techniques the worker uses What machines, tools, and equipment the worker uses What materials, products, subject matter, or services the worker produces
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Job Requirements (1 of 2)

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Refer to education, experience, licenses, and other personal characteristics an individual needs to perform the job content
Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ), takes into account human characteristics as well as task and technological factors of jobs and job classes

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Job Requirements (2 of 2)
The PAQ identifies and analyzes the following job aspects: 1. Information sources critical to job performance 2. Information processing and decision making critical to job performance 3. Physical activity and dexterity required of the job 4. Interpersonal relationships required of the job 5. Reactions of individuals to working conditions
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Job Context
Job context refers to factors such as the:
Physical demands and working conditions of the job Degree of accountability and responsibility Extent of supervision required or exercised Consequences of error

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Job context describes the environment within which the job is to be performed
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Job Analysis in Different Settings

Jobs in the Factory
Specialization Motion and time study Work simplification

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Standard methods

Jobs in the New Economy Human factors Technology Knowledge workers Team-based Broadly stated job descriptions
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Job Designs: The Results of Job Analysis

Job range
Number of tasks a person is expected to perform while doing a job The more tasks required, the greater the job range

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Job depth
Degree of influence or discretion that an individual possesses to choose how a job will be performed
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Job Depth and Range: Differences in Selected Jobs

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High

College professors Hospital anesthesiologists

College presidents Hospital chiefs of surgery Business research scientists

Job depth

Business packaging machine mechanics

College instructors
Hospital bookkeepers

College department chairpersons

Hospital nurses Business maintenance repair workers Job range

Low

Business assembly-line workers

Low
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High
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Job Designs: Job Relationships

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Determined by managers decisions regarding departmentalization bases and spans of control The wider the span of control, the larger the group and, consequently, the more difficult the establishment of friendship and interest relationships The basis for departmentalization also impacts job relationships
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The Way People Perceive Their Jobs (1 of 2)

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Perceived job content specific job activities and general job characteristics as perceived by individuals performing the job
Two individuals doing the same job may have the same or different perceptions of job content

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The Way People Perceive Their Jobs (2 of 2)

If managers desire to increase job performance by changing perceived job content, they can change:
Job characteristics Individual perceptions Social settings

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Six Characteristics of Perceived Job Content

Variety

Autonomy

Task Identity

Feedback

Friendship Opportunities
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Dealing with Others

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Designing Job Range: Job Rotation and Job Enlargement

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Job Rotation Job Enlargement Moving individuals from Increasing the number of one job to another tasks for which an individual is responsible Individual completes more job activities because Increases job range, but each job includes different not depth tasks Involves increasing the range of jobs and the perception of variety in job content
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Designing Job Depth: Job Enrichment

(1 of 2)

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The practice of increasing discretion individuals can use to select activities and outcomes Increases job depth and accordingly fulfills growth and autonomy needs Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation is the impetus for designing job depth

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Designing Job Depth: Job Enrichment

(2 of 2)

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Managers can provide employees with greater opportunities to exercise discretion by making the following changes:
Direct feedback New learning Scheduling Uniqueness Control over resources Personal accountability
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The Job Characteristics Model

Job Characteristics Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance Autonomy Critical Psychological States Experienced Meaningfulness of Work Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes of Work Knowledge of Actual Results of Work Activities Employees Growth Need Strength
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Personal and Work Outcomes

High Internal Work Motivation High-quality Work Performance High Satisfaction with Work Low Absenteeism and Turnover

Feedback

Steps that management can take to increase core job dimensions:

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1. Combining task elements

2. Assigning whole pieces of work (i.e., work modules) 3. Allowing discretion in selection of work methods

4. Permitting self-paced control

5. Opening feedback channels
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Problems associated with job design include:

1.
2. 3.

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4.

Unless lower-level needs are satisfied, people will not respond to opportunities to satisfy upper-level needs Job design programs may raise employees expectations beyond what is possible Job design may be resisted by labor unions who see the effort as an attempt to get more work for the same pay Job design efforts may not produce tangible improvements for some time after the beginning of the effort
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Teams and Job Design: Key Characteristics to Address

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(1 of 3)

Self-management. Refers to the teams ability to

set its own objectives coordinate its own activities resolve its own internal conflicts

Participation. The degree to which all members of the team are encouraged and allowed to participate in decisions
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Teams and Job Design: Key Characteristics to Address

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(2 of 3)

Task variety. The extent to which team members are given the opportunity to perform a variety of tasks and use different skills
Task significance. The degree to which the teams work is valued and has significance for both internal and external stakeholders of the organization
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Teams and Job Design: Key Characteristics to Address (3 of 3)

Task identity. The degree to which a team completes a whole and separate piece of work and has control over most of the resources necessary to accomplish its objectives

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Alternative Work Arrangements

Flexible work arrangements include: Job sharing Flextime Telecommuting Virtual teams

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Benefits to companies of flexible work programs: Higher recruitment and retention rates Improved morale Lower absenteeism and tardiness Higher levels of employee productivity
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Job Embeddedness and Job Design

(1 of 2)

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Job embeddedness refers to an employees:

links with other people and teams within the organization perceptions of their fit with their job, organization, and community sacrifices that would be made if he/she left the job

It is like a net or web that can expand across an individuals work, home, and community activities and interests
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Job Embeddedness and Job Design

(2 of 2)

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Managers can increase job embededdness by:

Placing employees on teams that are compatible with their skill set and personality Supporting the idea of flexible work scheduling to allow their employees to pursue some non-work hobbies and volunteer leadership opportunities

This will help decrease turnover of key employees

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Total Quality Management and Job Design

6-38

Total quality management (TQM) combines technical knowledge and human knowledge Managers who implement TQM, design jobs that empower individuals to make important decisions about product and service quality The empowerment process encourages participative management, team-oriented task modules, and autonomy
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